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文学史
1Consonance和音
Consonanceisastylisticdevice,mostcommonlyusedinpoetryandsongs,characterizedbytherepetitionofthesameconsonantsoundtwoormoretimesinshortsuccession,asin"pitterpatter"orin"allmammalsnamedSamareclammy".
Consonanceshouldnotbeconfusedwithassonance(谐音),whichistherepetitionofvowelsounds.
Alliteration(头韵)isaspecialcaseofconsonancewheretherepeatedconsonantsoundisatthebeginningofeachword,asin"fewflockedtothefight".
Anotherspecialcaseofconsonanceissibilance,theuseofseveralsibilantsoundssuchas/s/and/sh/.AnexampleistheversefromEdgarAllanPoe'sTheRaven:
"Andthesilkensaduncertainrustlingofeachpurplecurtain."(Thisexamplealsocontainsassonancearoundthe"ur"sound.)Anotherexampleofconsonanceistheword"sibilance"itself.
Consonanceisanelementofthehalfrhymepoeticformat.ItiscommoninHip-hopmusic,asforexampleinthesongZealotsbytheFugues:
"Raprejectsmytapedeck,ejectsprojectile/WhetherJeworgentileIranktoppercentile."
2Ode颂诗;赋
Ode,dignifiedandelaborately(精巧)structuredlyric(抒情)poempraisingandglorifyinganindividual,commemorating(纪念)anevent,ordescribingnatureintellectuallyratherthanemotionally.Odesoriginallyweresongsperformedtotheaccompanimentofamusicalinstrument.
3Sonnet十四行诗
fourteen-linerhymingpoemwithsetstructure:
ashortpoemwith14lines,usuallyten-syllablerhyminglines,dividedintotwo,three,orfoursections.
Therearemanyrhymingpatternsforsonnets,andtheyareusuallywritteniniambicpentameter.
4ComprehensionandAppreciation
Readingforcomprehensionbasedonthelogicalconnection
Readingforinterpretationbasedonimages
Appreciation:
Tointerpretaworkofliteratureistospecifythemeaningsofitslanguagebyanalysis,paraphrase,andcommentary;usuallysuchinterpretationfocusesonespeciallyobscure,ambiguous,orfigurativepassages.Tointerpretaworkofliteratureismakecleartheartisticfeaturesandpurportintheoverallworkofwhichlanguageservesasthemedium:
genre,componentelements,structure,theme,andeffects.
5语言的类型
语言的类型分类(或者称作语言的形态分类)是根据句子和词的构造,以及词与词之间的关系来对世界上的语言所进行的分类。
以下的分法不代表某种语言与另一种语言有绝对的结构差异,实际上,分类的标准是相对和连续的,我们很难确定一种绝对的孤立语、绝对的黏着语.
根据语言类型分类:
1孤立语(词根语)2黏着语3屈折语4多式综合语(编插语)
孤立语
孤立语的特点不是通过词的内部形态变化来表达语法作用,而是通过虚词和词序来表达。
汉语、彝语、壮语、苗语、越南语都是孤立语。
黏着语
黏着语有词的形态变化,语法关系通过詞的形态变化来表示。
黏着语的每个形态只表示一种语法意义,每种语法意义总是用同一个形态来表达。
土耳其语、维吾尔语、芬兰语、匈牙利语、日语、朝鲜语都是黏着语。
烏拉爾語系和阿爾泰語系下的語言是黏着语。
屈折语
在屈折语中,每个构型形态可以同时表示几个语法意义,每个语法意义又可以用几个构型形态来表示。
在这里,词根的重要性突出,而且词根结合处往往发生语音变化。
印欧语系和闪-含语系下的很多语言都是屈折语。
多式综合语
许多美洲原住民語言属于多式综合语。
根據語言的句法分類:
分析語(漢語、英語、法語、保加利亞語)
僅包括孤立語。
綜合語(日語、俄語、德語、印地語)
包括屈折語、黏著語和多式綜合語。
6语言的功能
马林诺夫斯基认为语言有四种功能:
接触意义、实际意义、魔力意义、叙述意义。
马林诺夫斯基认为,这种语言的叙述意义——语言不仅仅是陈述,还试图通过情感力量,引起效应。
奥斯汀则具体地区分了:
语言的表达性和成事性。
他在《如何用语言成事》一书中,详细地分析了语用学的问题。
开创了语言研究的一个方向。
其实,奥斯汀的做法也可以用在对语言的“魔力意义”的研究上,法国学者勒庞的群体心理学可以协助为这个研究打开思路。
言语的使用者相信语言和外部世界有一种神秘联系,这种情况在原始部落表现为——外部环境对说话人来说是神秘的,难以控制的,但是,却可以通过特殊言语,而取得正常活动无法取得的成效。
这种情况在现代社会也普遍存在。
比如在中国社会,某种特定的会议语言——日常语言在会议上是不适用的,一上会议,日常语言就中断了,改用一套特殊的语言系统,原因是人们相信这套语言可以为他带来特殊的效应,这种政治语言和日常语言互相切割的情况,实际是魔力语言观的一种体现。
不过,我并不直接关心这种语言的实际问题,而是关心这种魔力语言在现代社会的运用模式。
7Definitionofpoetry
Poetry,formofliterature,spokenorwritten,thatemphasizesrhythm,otherintricatepatternsofsoundandimagery,andthemanypossiblewaysthatwordscansuggestmeaning.TheworditselfderivesfromaGreekword,poesies,meaning“making”or“creating.”Whereasordinaryspeechandwriting,calledprose,areorganizedinsentencesandparagraphs,poetryinitssimplestdefinitionisorganizedinunitscalledlinesaswellasinsentences,andofteninstanzas,whicharetheparagraphsofpoetry.Itisimportanttokeepinmindthedistinctionbetweenverseandapoem.Thewordversehastwomeanings:
one,torefertoalineasaunitofpoetry;theother,torefertoanyworkthatusesrhythmandrhyme.Workingfromthesecondmeaning,onecandistinguishbetweenverseandapoem.Thoseworksthatfallintoacategorycontaininglimericks,jingles,andthelike,wecallverse;worksofhighandlastingqualitywecancallpoems.
Forcenturiespeoplehavetriedtodefineandcharacterizepoetryinmanydifferentways.Thefollowingquotationsmaysuggestpartofthefeaturesofpoetry,whicharepresentedbysomeestablishedpoetsandcritics.
“Poetryisalanguagethattellsus,throughamoreorlessemotionalreactions,somethingthatcannotbesaid.”
------EdwinArlingtonRobinson
“Poetryprovidestheonepossiblewayofsayingonethingandmeaninganother.”
------RobertFrost
“Theartofunitingpleasurewithtruthbycallingimaginationtothehelpofreason.”
------SamuelJohnson
“Theimaginativeexpressionofstrongfeelingsusuallyrhythmical…thespontaneousoverflowofpowerfulfeelingscollectedintranquility.”
------WilliamWordsworth
“Thebestwordsinthebestorder.”
------SamuelTaylorColeridge
“Musicalthought.”
------ThomasCarlyle
Poetryuseslanguageandituseslanguageinadifferentmanner.Thepracticaluseoflanguageistocommunicateinformationandtokeepthecommunicationchannelsopen,whilepoetryuseslanguagetocommunicateexperiencethatismuchwiderthanmereinformationandknowledge.Theverydifferencebetweenpoetryandotherliteratureisthatpoetryisthemostcondensedandcompactedformofliterature,sayingmostinthefewestnumberofwords.Besides,thelanguageofpoetryismulti-dimensional.Practicallanguagewhichaimstocommunicateinformationisonlydirectedatthelistener’sunderstanding,butpoetry,whichisusedtocommunicateexperience,hasatleastfourdimensions.Itinvolvesthereader’swholefaculties:
hisintelligence,hissenses,hisemotionsandhisimagination,notmerelyhisunderstanding.Therefore,poetryisaliterarygenrethatcommunicateexperienceinthemostcondensedform.
8BasicElementsofPoetry
A.Rhyme
Rhymeschemeisthemostobviouscharacteristicofapoem.Rhymeistherepetitionofthestressedvowelsoundandallsucceedingsounds:
gay,day,play,may;orwall,fall.
1.NumeralTypesofRhyme
a.Singlerhyme,orMasculineRhymeistherepetitionofonevowel,eitherasinglevoweloradiphthong:
Aheavyweightofhourshaschainedandbowed
Onetoolikethee:
tameless,andswift,andproud.(P.B.Shelley,OdetotheWestWind)
b.DoubleRhyme,orFeminineRhymeistherepetitionoftwovowels:
ThushaveIhadtheeasadreamdothflatter,
Insleep,aking:
butwaking,nosuchmatter.(W.Shakespeare,Sonnet87)
c.TripleRhyme,orMultipleRhymeistherepetitionofthreeormorethanthreevowelsinwords,orinphrases.
2.PositionalTypesofRhyme
Onthebasisoftheposition,therhymefallsintoseveraltypes.
a.EndRhyme
Iftherhymingwordsoccurattheendsoflines,itiscalledendrhyme.
Womanmuchmissed,howyoucalltome,calltome,
Sayingthatnowyouarenotasyouwere
Whenyouhadchangedfromonewhowasalltome,
Butasatfirst,whenourdaywasfair.(ThomasHardy,TheVoice)
Endrhymeisthecommonestandmostconsciouslysought-aftersoundrepetitioninEnglishpoetry.
b.InternalRhyme
Internalrhymeoccurswithintheverseline,veryofteninthemiddle,splittingthelineintotwohalves.
Spring,thesweetspring,istheyear’spleasantking,
Thenbloomseachthing,thenmaidsdanceinaring,
Colddothnotsting,theprettybirdsdosing.(T.Nash,Spring,theSweetSpring)
c.BeginningRhyme
BeginningRhymeoccursinthefirstsyllableorsyllablesofsuccessivelines.
WhyshouldIhavereturned?
Myknowledgewouldnotfitintotheirs.
Ifounduntouchedthedesertoftheunknown.(W.S.Merwin,Noah’sRaven)
3.NearRhyme
Alltheexamplesaboveareexactrhymes,becausetheysharethesamestressedvowelsoundsaswellasanysoundsthatfollowthevowel.Innearrhyme(alsocalledapproximaterhyme),thesoundsarealmostbutnotexactlyalike.Thereareseveralkindsofnearrhyme.
Alliterationistherepetitionofconsonants,especiallyatthebeginningofwordsorstressedsyllables.Forexample,“WhileInodded,nearlynapping,suddenlytherecameatapping.”Consonanceistherepetitionofidenticalconsonantsoundsbeforeandafterdifferentvowels.Forexample,“tit”and“tat”,“home”and“same”.Assonanceistherepetitionofvowelsoundsinalineofpoetryasin“freeandeasy”.Eyerhymeisformedbywordsthatlooklikearhymedunitbutdonothavethesamesounds.Forexample,“home”and“some”,“hear”and“bear”.Onomatopoeiaisawordorphrasethatimitatesthesoundofthethingwhichdescribes,likethewords“buzz”,“clash”,“sizzle”and“hizz”.
9Aesthetic
Aestheticisabranchofphilosophydealingwiththenatureofbeauty.ThewordaestheticswasfirstusedbyGermanphilosopherAlexanderGottliebBaumgarten,whohelpedtoestablishthestudyofaestheticsasaseparatephilosophicalfieldofstudy.Throughthe2000yearsdevelopment,ithasbecomeamoredelicateandcompletesubject.
美学是从人对现实的审美关系出发,以艺术作为主要对象,研究美、丑、崇高等审美范畴和人的审美意识,美感经验,以及美的创造、发展及其规律的科学。
美学是以对美的本质及其意义的研究为主题的学科。
美学是哲学的一个分支。
研究的主要对象是艺术,但不研究艺术中的具体表现问题,而是研究艺术中的哲学问题,因此被称为“美的艺术的哲学”。
美学的基本问题有美的本质、审美意识同审美对象的关系等。
由于美学研究的方法是多元的,(既可以采取哲学思辩的方法,也可以借鉴当今其他相关学科的研究方法,比如经验描述和心理分析的方法、人类学和社会学的方法、语言学和文化学的方法等),——美学只是包括“哲学思辩”,不应该“是哲学的一个分支”。
再者,“美”本身是人的一种感觉,不同的人对美有不同的感受,通常连思辩都用不着。
所以,美学是研究美的本质及其意义的独立的学科。
(江竟瑞)
10newcriticism
Amethodofliteraryevaluationandinterpretationpracticedchieflyinthemid-20thcenturythatemphasizescloseexaminationofatextwithminimumregardforthebiographicalorhistoricalcircumstancesinwhichitwasproduced.
TheNewCriticismpositsthateverytextisautonomous.History,biography,sociology,psychol