文学史.docx

1、文学史1 Consonance 和音Consonance is a stylistic device, most commonly used in poetry and songs, characterized by the repetition of the same consonant sound two or more times in short succession, as in pitter patter or in all mammals named Sam are clammy.Consonance should not be confused with assonance (

2、谐音), which is the repetition of vowel sounds. Alliteration(头韵) is a special case of consonance where the repeated consonant sound is at the beginning of each word, as in few flocked to the fight. Another special case of consonance is sibilance, the use of several sibilant sounds such as /s/ and /sh/

3、. An example is the verse from Edgar Allan Poes The Raven: And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain. (This example also contains assonance around the ur sound.) Another example of consonance is the word sibilance itself.Consonance is an element of the half rhyme poetic format. It

4、 is common in Hip-hop music, as for example in the song Zealots by the Fugues: Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile/Whether Jew or gentile I rank top percentile.2 Ode 颂诗；赋Ode, dignified and elaborately(精巧) structured lyric(抒情) poem praising and glorifying an individual, commemorating(纪念) an e

5、vent, or describing nature intellectually rather than emotionally. Odes originally were songs performed to the accompaniment of a musical instrument.3 Sonnet 十四行诗fourteen-line rhyming poem with set structure: a short poem with 14 lines, usually ten-syllable rhyming lines, divided into two, three, or

6、 four sections. There are many rhyming patterns for sonnets, and they are usually written in iambic pentameter.4 Comprehension and AppreciationReading for comprehension based on the logical connection Reading for interpretation based on imagesAppreciation：To interpret a work of literature is to spec

7、ify the meanings of its language by analysis, paraphrase, and commentary; usually such interpretation focuses on especially obscure, ambiguous, or figurative passages. To interpret a work of literature is make clear the artistic features and purport in the overall work of which language serves as th

8、e medium: genre, component elements, structure, theme, and effects.5语言的类型语言的类型分类（或者称作语言的形态分类）是根据句子和词的构造，以及词与词之间的关系来对世界上的语言所进行的分类。以下的分法不代表某种语言与另一种语言有绝对的结构差异，实际上，分类的标准是相对和连续的，我们很难确定一种绝对的孤立语、绝对的黏着语.根据语言类型分类：1孤立语（词根语）2黏着语 3屈折语 4多式综合语（编插语） 孤立语孤立语的特点不是通过词的内部形态变化来表达语法作用，而是通过虚词和词序来表达。汉语、彝语、壮语、苗语、越南语都是孤立语。黏着

9、语黏着语有词的形态变化，语法关系通过詞的形态变化来表示。黏着语的每个形态只表示一种语法意义，每种语法意义总是用同一个形态来表达。土耳其语、维吾尔语、芬兰语、匈牙利语、日语、朝鲜语都是黏着语。烏拉爾語系和阿爾泰語系下的語言是黏着语。屈折语在屈折语中，每个构型形态可以同时表示几个语法意义，每个语法意义又可以用几个构型形态来表示。在这里，词根的重要性突出，而且词根结合处往往发生语音变化。印欧语系和闪-含语系下的很多语言都是屈折语。多式综合语许多美洲原住民語言属于多式综合语。根據語言的句法分類：分析語（漢語、英語、法語、保加利亞語） 僅包括孤立語。 綜合語（日語、俄語、德語、印地語） 包括屈折語、黏著

10、語和多式綜合語。6 语言的功能马林诺夫斯基认为语言有四种功能:接触意义、实际意义、魔力意义、叙述意义。 马林诺夫斯基认为，这种语言的叙述意义语言不仅仅是陈述，还试图通过情感力量，引起效应。奥斯汀则具体地区分了：语言的表达性和成事性。他在如何用语言成事一书中，详细地分析了语用学的问题。开创了语言研究的一个方向。 其实，奥斯汀的做法也可以用在对语言的“魔力意义”的研究上，法国学者勒庞的群体心理学可以协助为这个研究打开思路。 言语的使用者相信语言和外部世界有一种神秘联系，这种情况在原始部落表现为外部环境对说话人来说是神秘的，难以控制的，但是，却可以通过特殊言语，而取得正常活动无法取得的成效。 这种情

11、况在现代社会也普遍存在。比如在中国社会，某种特定的会议语言日常语言在会议上是不适用的，一上会议，日常语言就中断了，改用一套特殊的语言系统，原因是人们相信这套语言可以为他带来特殊的效应，这种政治语言和日常语言互相切割的情况，实际是魔力语言观的一种体现。不过，我并不直接关心这种语言的实际问题，而是关心这种魔力语言在现代社会的运用模式。7 Definition of poetryPoetry, form of literature, spoken or written, that emphasizes rhythm, other intricate patterns of sound and ima

12、gery, and the many possible ways that words can suggest meaning. The word itself derives from a Greek word, poesies, meaning “making” or “creating.” Whereas ordinary speech and writing, called prose, are organized in sentences and paragraphs, poetry in its simplest definition is organized in units c

13、alled lines as well as in sentences, and often in stanzas, which are the paragraphs of poetry. It is important to keep in mind the distinction between verse and a poem . The word verse has two meanings: one, to refer to a line as a unit of poetry; the other, to refer to any work that uses rhythm and

14、 rhyme. Working from the second meaning, one can distinguish between verse and a poem. Those works that fall into a category containing limericks, jingles, and the like , we call verse; works of high and lasting quality we can call poems. For centuries people have tried to define and characterize po

15、etry in many different ways. The following quotations may suggest part of the features of poetry, which are presented by some established poets and critics. “ Poetry is a language that tells us, through a more or less emotional reactions, something that cannot be said.” - Edwin Arlington Robinson “

16、Poetry provides the one possible way of saying one thing and meaning another .” - Robert Frost “ The art of uniting pleasure with truth by calling imagination to the help of reason.” - Samuel Johnson “ The imaginative expression of strong feelings usually rhythmical the spontaneous overflow of power

17、ful feelings collected in tranquility.” - William Wordsworth “ The best words in the best order.” - Samuel Taylor Coleridge “ Musical thought.” - Thomas Carlyle Poetry uses language and it uses language in a different manner. The practical use of language is to communicate information and to keep th

18、e communication channels open, while poetry uses language to communicate experience that is much wider than mere information and knowledge. The very difference between poetry and other literature is that poetry is the most condensed and compacted form of literature , saying most in the fewest number

19、 of words. Besides, the language of poetry is multi-dimensional. Practical language which aims to communicate information is only directed at the listeners understanding, but poetry, which is used to communicate experience, has at least four dimensions. It involves the readers whole faculties: his i

20、ntelligence, his senses, his emotions and his imagination, not merely his understanding. Therefore, poetry is a literary genre that communicate experience in the most condensed form.8 Basic Elements of PoetryA. Rhyme Rhyme scheme is the most obvious characteristic of a poem. Rhyme is the repetition

21、of the stressed vowel sound and all succeeding sounds: gay, day, play, may; or wall, fall. 1. Numeral Types of Rhyme a. Single rhyme, or Masculine Rhyme is the repetition of one vowel, either a single vowel or a diphthong: A heavy weight of hours has chained and bowed One too like thee: tame less, a

22、nd swift, and proud. ( P. B. Shelley, Ode to the West Wind )b. Double Rhyme, or Feminine Rhyme is the repetition of two vowels: Thus have I had thee as a dream doth flatter, In sleep, a king: but waking, no such matter. ( W. Shakespeare, Sonnet 87 ) c. Triple Rhyme, or Multiple Rhyme is the repetiti

23、on of three or more than three vowels in words, or in phrases. 2. Positional Types of Rhyme On the basis of the position, the rhyme falls into several types. a. End Rhyme If the rhyming words occur at the ends of lines, it is called end rhyme. Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me, Sayin

24、g that now you are not as you were When you had changed from one who was all to me, But as at first, when our day was fair. ( Thomas Hardy, The Voice )End rhyme is the commonest and most consciously sought-after sound repetition in English poetry. b. Internal Rhyme Internal rhyme occurs within the v

25、erse line, very often in the middle, splitting the line into two halves. Spring, the sweet spring, is the years pleasant king, Then blooms each thing, then maids dance in a ring, Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do sing. ( T. Nash, Spring, the Sweet Spring )c. Beginning Rhyme Beginning Rhyme oc

26、curs in the first syllable or syllables of successive lines. Why should I have returned? My knowledge would not fit into theirs. I found untouched the desert of the unknown. ( W.S. Merwin, Noahs Raven )3. Near Rhyme All the examples above are exact rhymes, because they share the same stressed vowel

27、sounds as well as any sounds that follow the vowel. In near rhyme ( also called approximate rhyme ), the sounds are almost but not exactly alike. There are several kinds of near rhyme.Alliteration is the repetition of consonants, especially at the beginning of words or stressed syllables. For exampl

28、e, “While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping.” Consonance is the repetition of identical consonant sounds before and after different vowels. For example, “tit” and “tat”, “home” and “same”. Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in a line of poetry as in “free and easy”. Ey

29、e rhyme is formed by words that look like a rhymed unit but do not have the same sounds. For example, “home” and “some”, “hear” and “bear”. Onomatopoeia is a word or phrase that imitates the sound of the thing which describes, like the words “buzz”, “clash”, “sizzle” and “hizz”.9 AestheticAesthetic

30、is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty. The word aesthetics was first used by German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, who helped to establish the study of aesthetics as a separate philosophical field of study. Through the 2000 years development, it has become a more de

31、licate and complete subject.美学是从人对现实的审美关系出发，以艺术作为主要对象，研究美、丑、崇高等审美范畴和人的审美意识，美感经验，以及美的创造、发展及其规律的科学。 美学是以对美的本质及其意义的研究为主题的学科。美学是哲学的一个分支。研究的主要对象是艺术，但不研究艺术中的具体表现问题，而是研究艺术中的哲学问题，因此被称为“美的艺术的哲学”。美学的基本问题有美的本质、审美意识同审美对象的关系等。由于美学研究的方法是多元的，（ 既可以采取哲学思辩的方法，也可以借鉴当今其他相关学科的研究方法，比如经验描述和心理分析的方法、人类学和社会学的方法、语言学和文化学的方法等），

32、美学只是包括“哲学思辩”，不应该“是哲学的一个分支”。再者，“美”本身是人的一种感觉，不同的人对美有不同的感受，通常连思辩都用不着。所以，美学是研究美的本质及其意义的独立的学科。（ 江竟瑞 ）10 new criticismA method of literary evaluation and interpretation practiced chiefly in the mid-20th century that emphasizes close examination of a text with minimum regard for the biographical or historical circumstances in which it was produced.The New Criticism posits that every text is autonomous. History, biography, sociology, psychol