语言学.docx

语言学.docx

《语言学.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《语言学.docx（14页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

语言学

                                                  Courseinlinguistics

1.Designfeaturesoflanguage（P9）:

1）Arbitrariness（随意性）:

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

2）Duality（双重性）:

Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures：

Soundv.s.character

3）Creativity（创造性）：

Characterstoformnewwords

Wordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthings

Createaninfinitenumberofsentences.

4）Displacement（取代性）：

Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atthemomentofcommunication.

5）Culturaltransmission（文化传播性）：

Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.

6）Interchangeability（可互换性）：

Anyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.

2.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds（P20）:

1） classificationofEnglishconsonants:

①Themannerofarticulation:

Stops/plosives（completeobstruction）:

[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];

Fricatives擦音（partialobstruction）:

[f],[v],[s],[z],[ʃ],[ʒ],[θ],[ð],[h];

Affricates塞擦音（obstructionfromcompletetopartial）:

[ʧ],[ʤ];

Nasals（loweringsoftpalate）:

[m],[n],[ŋ];

Liquids流音（soundmovesfromtongue）:

[l]（lateral）,[r]（curvethetongue）;

Glides滑音/semivowels:

[w]（movefromlips）,[j]（movefromtonguetohardpalate）.

②Theplaceofarticulation

bilabial:

[p],[b],[m],[w];

labiodental:

[f],[v];

dental:

[θ],[ð];

Alveolar齿龈:

[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];

palatal:

[ʃ],[ʒ],[ʧ],[ʤ],[j];

Velar软腭:

[k],[g],[ŋ];

Glottal喉音:

[h].

2）classificationofEnglishvowels

①Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels

[i:

],[i],[e],[æ],[з:

],[з],[ʌ][u:

],[u],[ɔ:

],[ɔ],[a:

],

Diphthongsorglidingvowels

      ei,ai,əu,au,ɔi,iə,ɛə,uə

②frontvowels:

[i:

],[i],[e],[æ],[a]

centralvowels（betweensoftandhardpalate）:

[з:

],[з],[ʌ]

backvowels:

tonguemovestowardshardpalate

[u:

],[u],[ɔ:

],[ɔ],[a:

]

③theopennessofthemouth:

Close:

[i:

],[i],[u:

],[u]

Semi-close:

[e],[з:

],

Semi-open:

[з],[ɔ:

];

Open:

[æ],[a],[∧],[ɔ],[a:

]

④unroundedvowelsandroundedvowels

⑤longvowelsandshortvowels

3.Phonetics（语音学）&phonology（音位学）（P22）

∙Bothareconcernedwiththespeechsounds.

∙Phoneticsisofgeneralnature:

howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.

∙Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareputtogethertoconveymeaning.

4.Phone（音位）,phoneme（音素）,allophone（音位变体）（P23）

∙Aphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.[]

∙Aphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext.//  /p/

∙Allophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.

eg:

[ph]peak[p]speak----音位 是/p/的音位变体

Phoneme phoneallophone

∙/l/:

[l]（leave）,[ɫ]（school）

∙/n/:

[n]（Ken）,[n]need

5.Somerulesofphonology（P25）

Sequentialrules（序列）----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“k b i I” mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Pat,apt,tap;lead,deal

Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel:

load

∙[n]isfollowedbyavowel:

need

Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,e.g.spring,strict

∙    a）  thefirstphonememustbe/s/,

∙    b）  thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,

∙    c）  thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.

Assimilationrule（同化）----assimilatesneighboringsoundby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:

Eg:

input

Deletionrule（吞音）---ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.

∙Pronounceonlyonewhentwoconsonantscometogether:

roll,spell,illegal

6.Stress（强调）（P27）

Wordstress（ondifferentsyllables）

    Present,import,increase,record

Sentencestress

    Heismyson.

    Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.

7.Morphemes-----theminimalunitsofmeaning（P32）

1）Freemorpheme（自由语素）&boundmorpheme（粘着语素）

Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword（freeform）byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,

Freemorphemescanformnewwordsbyjoiningwithotherfreemorphemes:

nrain+coat=raincoat       water+mark=watermark

Boundmorpheme----onethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.

prefixes,suffixesandinfixes

nnumberfornouns

ncasefornounsandpronouns

ntenseandpersonforverbs

ndegreesofcomparisonforadjectives

∙mono-morphemewordsandcompoundwordsareformedallbyfreemorphemes.

derivewordsareformedbyarootandboundmorphemes.

2）Derivationalmorpheme（派生语素）&inflectionalmorpheme（曲折语素）

Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize, length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.改变词义

Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,case,degreeandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,不改变词义e.g.

   a）number:

  tables apples cars

   b）personandtense:

 talk/talks/talking/talked                                                   

   c）case格:

  John/John’s

   d）comparative/superlativedegree:

faster/fastest

3）wordstructures:

Replacements

replacement             s

             replace              ment   ----- immediateconstituentsoftheformononelevelabove                                                                                           

re                place                ------ultimateconstituents

Somefrequentlyusedmorphologicalrules

∙1.un-+adj.→adj.   2.n.+-ful→adj.

∙3.v.+-able→adj.   4.n.+-ly→adj.

∙5.adj.+-ly→adv.   6.adj.+-ness→n.

∙7.v.+-ment→n.    8.re-+v.→v.

∙9.in-/il-/ir-/im-+adj.→adj.

∙10.v.+-ence/-ance/-ency/-ancy→n.

∙11.dis-+v.→v.     12.adj./n.+-en→v.

∙13.en-+adj./n.→v. 14.adj.+-ize→v.

∙15.de-+v.→v.      16.n./adj.+-ify→v.

Eg:

1.enlargement     2.disapproval    3.tastelessness    

∙4.untouchable     5.decentralized

8.Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga“+”betweeneachmorphemeandthenext（P40）:

a.microfilm         b.bedraggled        c.announcement

d.predigestion       e.telecommunication  f.forefather

g.psychophysics      h.mechanist

9Word-levelcategories（P43）

∙Majorlexicalcategories:

N,V,Adj,Prep.

∙MinorLexicalcategories:

Determiner:

a,an,the,this…

Degreewords:

quite,very,more,so…

Qualifier（frequency）:

often,seldom…

Auxiliary:

should,can,may…

Conjunction:

and,but,or

10.树形图XP→（Specifier）（Modifier）X（Complement）（Modifier）

11.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning（P63）

nTheconceptualistview

nContextualism（Bloomfield）

nBehaviorism

1）            Theconceptualistview:

Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto（i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld）

OgdenandRichards:

semantictriangle

Thought/reference指称/concept                  concept

Symbol/Linguisticform   Referent特指    word    Indirect  thing

2）            Thecontextualism

n Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context

n Empiricalorobservableinsteadoftheoreticalaspect

n Twotypesofcontexts:

      Situationalcontext:

spatiotemporalsituation

      Linguisticcontext:

theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.

n eg.,“black”inblackhair&blacktea,orblacksheep

              “blue”inbluesky&bluemusic

3）            Behaviorism-Bloomfield

Psycholinguistics

thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponsefromthehearer

ThestoryofJackandJill:

“I’mthirsty.”

          Jill                        Jack

  Symbol____Jack’sresponse-stimulus__Referent

12.Majorsenserelations（P66简答题，定义，分类）

n Synonymy

n Antonymy

n Polysemy

n Homonymy

n Hyponymy

1）        Synonymy（sameness）

Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

      eg.buyvs.purchase

      LittleTom___atoycar.

      Theclient___3,000toybearsfromthecompany.

①Dialectallydifferentsynonyms（BrEvs.AmE）p.67

      e.g.autumn-fall,petrol–gasoline

②Stylisticallydifferent（degreeofformality）

      e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence

③Collocationallydifferent

      e.g.accuse…of,charge…with

⑤Semanticallydifferent

      e.g.preserve,conserve,reserve

2）Antonymy（oppositeness）

n Gradableantonyms等级反义词e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,good-bad

n Complementaryantonyms互补性反义词e.g.alive-dead,male-female,man-woman,pass-fail,boy-girleg.Heisaman（notawoman）.Heisalive（notdead）

n Relationalopposites关系对立词exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,no“positive-negative”relationship

e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient

3）Polysemy一词多义

Polysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“tab