语言学定义1.docx
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语言学定义1
Semantics
IV.Definethefollowingterms:
31.Semantics:
Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.
32.Sense:
Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractanddecontextualized.
33.Reference:
Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience
34.Synonymy:
Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.
35.Polysemy:
Polysemyreferstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.
36.Homonymy:
Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.
37.Homophones:
Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarecalledhomophones
38.Homographs:
Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.
39.Completehomonyms:
Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.
40.Hyponymy:
Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.
41.Antonymy:
Antonymyreferstotherelationofoppositenessofmeaning.
42.Componentialanalysis:
Itdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents,orsemanticfeatures.
43.Thegrammaticalmeaning:
Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.
44.Predication:
Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.
45.Argument:
Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication.Itisgenerallyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.
46.Predicate:
Apredicateissomethingthatissaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.
47.two-placepredication:
Atwo-placepredicationisonewhichcon-tainstwoarguments.
Pragmatics
IV.Definethefollowingterms:
31.Conversationalimplicature:
Inourdailylife,speakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Inotherwords,whenpeoplearetalkingwitheachother,theymusttrytoconversesmoothlyandsuccessfully.Inacceptingspeakers’presuppositions,listenershavetoassumethataspeakerisnottryingtomisleadthem.Thissenseofcooperationissimplyoneinwhichpeoplehavingaconversationarenotnormallyassumedtobetryingtoconfuse,trick,orwithholdrelevantinformationfromoneanother.However,inrealcommunication,theintentionofthespeakerisoftennottheliteralmeaningofwhatheorshesays.Therealintentionimpliedinthewordsiscalledconversationalimplicature.
32.Performative:
Inspeechacttheoryanutterancewhichperformsanact,suchasWatchout(=awarning).
33.Locutionaryact:
Alocutionaryactisthesayingofsomethingwhichismeaningfulandcanbeunderstood.
34.Horn’sQ-principle:
(1)Makeyourcontributionsufficient(cf.quantity);
(2)Sayasmuchasyoucan(givenR).
37.Pragmatics:
Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.
38.Context:
Generallyspeaking,itconsistsoftheknowledgethatissharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:
theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.
39.Utterancemeaning:
themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.
40.Sentencemeaning:
Themeaningofasentenceisof-tenconsideredastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.
41.Constative:
Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwereverifiable;
42.Performative:
performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.Theirfunctionistoperformaparticularspeechact.
43.Locutionaryact:
Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.
44.illocutionaryact:
Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.
45.Perlocutionaryact:
Aperlocutionaryactistheactper-formedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.
46.CooperativePrinciple:
ItisprincipleadvancedbyPaulGrice.Itisaprinciplethatguidesourconversationalbehaviours.Thecontentis:
Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeorthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.
HistoricalLinguistics
IV.Definethefollowingterms:
51.Apocope:
Apocopeisthedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment.
52.Metathesis:
Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovementisknownasmetathesis.Itinvolvesareversalinpositionoftwoneighbouringsoundsegments.
53.Derivation:
Itisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stemsorwords.
54.Back-formation:
Itisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesupposedsuffixofanexistingword.
55.Semanticnarrowing:
Semanticnarrowingisaprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.
56.Protolanguage:
Itistheoriginalformofalanguagefamilythathasceasedtoexist.
57.Haplology:
Itreferstothephenomenonofthelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.
58.Epenthesis:
Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.
59.Compounding:
Itisaprocessofcombiningtwoormorethantwowordsintoonelexicalunit.
60.Blending:
Itisaprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwords.
61.Semanticbroadening:
Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenotation.
62.Semanticshift:
Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhich
awordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelated,meaning.
63.GreatVowelShift:
ItisaseriesofsystematicsoundchangeattheendoftheMiddleEnglishperiodapproximatelybetween1400and1600inthehistoryofEnglishthatinvolvedsevenlongvowelsandconsequentlyledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenEnglishpronunciationanditsspellingsystem.
64.Acronym:
Anacronymisawordcreatedbycombiningtheinitialsofanumberofwords.
65.Soundassimilation:
Soundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonan-other.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundsaremadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology.
Sociolinguistics
IV.Definethefollowingterms:
43.Sociolinguistics:
Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinsocialcontexts.
44.Speechcommunity:
Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledthespeechcommunityoraspeechcommunityisagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Theimportantcharacteristicofaspeechcommunityisthatthemembersofthegroupmust,insomereasonableway,interactlinguisticallywithothermembersofthecommunity.Theymaysharecloselyrelatedlanguagevarieties,aswellasattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.
45.Speechvariety:
Speechvariety,alsoknownaslanguagevariety,referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Thedistinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.
46.Languageplanning:
languagestandardizationisknownaslanguageplanning.Thismeansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystems,acrossregionalboundaries.
47.Idiolect:
Anidiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcom-binesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.Inanarrowersense,whatmakesupone’sidiolectincludesalsosuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm,whichallcontributetotheidentifyingfeaturesinanindividual'sspeech.
48.Standardlanguage:
Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.
49.Nonstandardlanguage:
Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandardlanguages
50.Linguafranca:
Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticbackgrounds.
51.Pidgin:
Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.
52.Creole:
ACreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasa