英语重点.docx

英语重点.docx

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英语重点

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（1）

Corporations

Acorporationisanartificialbeing,invisible,intangible,andexistingonlyincontemplationofthelaw.Itisanentitybuttheexistenceofitisseparatedfromitsowners.Moreparticularly,corporationsarelegalentitiesestablishedbythelawsofthegovernmentunderwhichtheyareformed.Thestateissueseachcorporationacharterthatspecifiesthecorporation'sbusinessobjectivesandgivesittheauthoritytooperateasabusiness.Corporationscanbuyandholdproperty,makeandbepartytocontractsandsueandbesued.Andtheymustpaytaxes.

Corporationshaveadistinctiveorganizationstructurewithseveralimportantcomponents（SeeFigure1.5）.Thesecomponentsaretheincorporators,thestockholders,thedirectors,andtheofficers.

InFigure1.5,theorganizersofacorporationareknownasitsincorporators,whomustsigntheapplicationforacorporatecharter.Theincorporatorsalsodecideonthenameofthecorporation,itspurpose,andtheamountofinitialsharesofstocktoissue.Sincethesedecisionsarevitaltothesuccessofthebusiness,itisadvantageousfortheincorporatorstobestockholdersinthenewcorporation.Oftentheincorporatorsarethepeoplewhostartedthebusinessasasoleproprietorshiporpartnership.

Theownersofacorporationareknownasitsstockholders（orshareholders）.Stockholdershavetorightstosellortransfertheirownershipinthecorporation（theirstocks）atanytime,andtheycanreceivedividends.Theyarealsoentitledtoattendannualmeetings,toelecttheboardofdirectors,andtovoteonafewothermattersaffectingthecorporation,asprovidedinthecharterandbylaws.Stockholderscanassigntheirvotestosomeoneelse,whothenvotessharesasdesiredbythestockholderattheindicatedmeeting.Thedocumentthatthestockholdersignstoauthorizesomeoneelsetovotethesharesisproxy（orproxystatement）.

Thegoverningauthorityofeachcorporationistheboardofdirectors.Thedirectorsareelectedbythestockholdersandareresponsiblefortheoverallmanagementofthecorporation.Theysetmajorcorporatepolicies,electcorporateofficers,andgenerallyoverseetheoperationalandfinancialaffairsofthecorporation.Insmallandmedium-sizecorporations,thestockholdersareoftenthedirectors.

Thetop-levelemployeesofthecorporationwhoareresponsibleforitsday-to-dayoperationsaretheofficers（oroperatingmanagers）.Theyareelectedbytheboardofdirectors,andmanyofthemarealsothemembersoftheboardandstockholders.Theirnumberandtitlesarespecifiedinthecorporation'sbylaws.SomeofthetitlesarePresident,ChiefExecutiveOfficer,Vice-President,Treasurer,andSecretary.LeeIacoccaofChryslerisoneofthemanywell-knowncorporateofficers.

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Figure3.4ATime-ScaledPERTChart

Figure3.4showsasampletime-scaledPERTchartdesignedforadesigningprogram.Asthechartindicates,oncetheevent“preliminarydesigntask”hasfinished,certainactivities,suchas“programmingtask1”canproceedwhile“testingtask”willhavetowaituntilalltheothertasksarecompleted.ItiseasytoseethatPERTtakesintoaccountrelationshipsthattheGANTTchartdoesnot.

TwootherfeaturesofthechartinFigure3.4mustbeemphasized.First,eventsarepresentedfromlefttoright,showinghowtheyinterrelateorthesequenceinwhichtheyshouldbeperformed.Second,thenumberinformof“5d”,“6d”,or“9d”ineachtaskboxindicatestheunitsoftimeneededtocompleteeachactivity.Thesetwofeatureshelpthemanagerensurethatnecessaryworkisbeingdoneonaprojectandthatnoprojectactivityistakingtoolong.

InusingaPERTnetwork,closeattentionshouldbegiventocriticalpath—thesequenceofeventsandactivitiesinaPERTnetworkthatrequiresthelongestperiodoftimetocomplete.Thispathis“critical”becauseadelayinthetimenecessarytoreachkeystagesofthissequencewouldresultinadelayinthecompletionoftheentireproject.Italsoprovidesawaytofocusattentiononunnecessarydelaysorslacktimesatkeypointsintheprocess.Themanagertriestocontrolaprojectbycompletingeachstepwithinthetimeframedesignatedbythecriticalpath.

PERTnetworksusedtobuildcomplexequipmentorfactoriesareextremelycomplex,involvingthousandsofactivitiesandevents.Tousethemeffectively,managersmustrelyonsophisticatedandpowerfulcomputers.

NetworkAnalysisisbestsuitedtosituationsinwhichprecedencerelationshipsandreasonabletimeestimatescanbeestablished.Oneimportantfeatureofthesemodelsisthattheypermitthemanagertodeterminetheoveralleffectofadelayinthecompletionofaparticulartask.Theyalsomakeitpossibletofiguretheschedulingeffectofareallocationofresourcesfromonetasktoanother.

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Figure4.1Maslow’sHierarchyofHumanNeeds

HierarchyofNeeds

Aneedisalackofsomethingessential,desirable,oruseful.Theneedstheoryofmotivationstatesthatpeopleacttosatisfytheirneeds.MaslowproposedahierarchyofneedsconsistingoffivelevelsasisshowninFigure4.1.

●PhysiologicalNeeds-----needsforfood,shelter,andclothing.Theseneedsarethemostbasicandthereforeatthebottomofthehierarchy,buttheyaretheonesthatmotivateapersontofindajobandearnmoneytoprovidefood,shelter,andclothingforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.

●SafetyNeeds-----needstofeelsecure,tobeprotected,andtoavoidtheunexpected.TheseneedsareatthesecondlevelofMaslow’shierarchy.Theyaregenerallyforjobsecurityandprotectionfromworkhazards.Someofthemeansforsatisfyingtheseneedsareseniorityprovisionsinlaboragreements,healthandsafetylegislation,andinsurance.

●SocialNeeds-----needsforbelonging（acceptedbyothers）andforgivingandreceivingfriendshipandlove.Informalsocialgroupsonandoffthejobhelppeoplesatisfytheseneeds.Evenformalworkgroupscanhelpmeetworkers’socialneeds.

●EsteemNeeds-----needsfortherespectfromothersandforasenseofaccomplishmentandachievement.Satisfactionoftheseneedsisreflectedinfeelingsofself-worth.Havingajobisoftenveryimportantinsatisfyingesteemneeds.Thosewhohavebeenunemployedorthosewhohavebeenlaidoffforalongtimeoftenlackself-respectandfeelthattheyarenotrespectedbyothers.Praiseandrecognitionfrommanagersandothersinthefirmcontributetothesenseofself-worth.

●Self-ActualizationNeeds-----needsforfulfillment,forlivinguptoone’spotential,andforusingone’sabilitiestotheutmost.TheArmyrecruitingslogan“BeAllThatYouCanBe”isaimedattheseneeds.Inothercases,beingabletobalanceacomplicatedsetofledgersmakesanaccountantfeelself-actualized;amanagerwhodevelopsandmaintainsaneffectivedepartmentmightalsofeelself-actualized.

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Becausemostthingssoldareablendofproductandservice,fromnowonthetermproductwillrefertoboth.ProductscanbeclassifiedintoconsumergoodsandindustrialgoodsasshowninFigure5.2.Marketingmanagersmustknowhowamajorityofconsumersviewtheircompany'sproducts.Thentheycandesignthemarketingmixtoappealtothetargetmarket.Ifmostpeopleviewanitemasaconveniencegood,thenitshouldbepromoted,priced,anddistributedasconveniencegoods.

Goodsandservices（products）purchasedandusedbytheultimatebuyeraretermedasconsumergoods.Theyincludeelectricrazors,sandwiches,cars,stereos,magazines,andhouses.Todiscoverthenatureofconsumergoods,wewillexaminetheminthreemajorgroupings:

conveniencegoods,shoppinggoods,andspecialtygoods（seeFigure5.2）.Thisclassificationisbasedontheamountofeffortconsumersarewillingtomaketoacquiretheproducts.

Figure5.2ProductClassification

Relativelyinexpensiveitemsthatrequirelittleshoppingeffortareconveniencegoods.Softdrinks,milk,bread,andsmallhardwareitemsaretypical.Webuythemroutinelywithoutmuchplanning.

Goodsthatareboughtafterabrand-to-brandandstore-to-storecomparisonofprice,life-stylecompatibility,suitability,andstyleareshoppinggoods.Theyincludefurniture,automobiles,andsomeclothing.Whereasconveniencegoodsareboughtwithlittleplanning,shoppinggoodsmaybedecidedonmonthorevenyearsbeforetheiractualpurchase.

Whenconsumerssearchlongandhardforspecificproductsandrefusetoacceptsubstitutes,theobjectsoftheirsearcharespecialtygoods.Expensivejewelry,designerclothing,expensivestereoequipment,limited-productionautomobiles,andgourmetfoodsfallintothiscategory.Sinceconsumersarewillingtospendmuchtimeandefforttofindspecialtygoods,distributionisoftenlimitedtooneortwostoresinagivenregion.

Productsboughtbybusinessesorinstitutionsforuseinmakingotherproductsorinrenderingservicesareindustrialgoods.Theyareclassifiedaseithercapitalgoodsorexpenseitems.

Capitalgoodsarelarge,expensiveitemsthathavelonglifespanandgetspecialtaxtreatment.Examplesarebuildings,largemachines,andairplanes.

Expenseitemsaresmaller,lessexpensiveitemsthathavealifespanofusuallylessthanayearandreceivedifferenttaxtreatment.Examplesarefloppydisksandpaperforofficework.

翻译

（1）InformationalRolesarethoseofinformationseekerandinformationdistributor.Amanager'scontactswithothermanagersandwithsubordinatesprovidethebasisforthetheseroles.Asinformationseekers,managersmustkeepabreastofnewsandinformationthatcouldaffecttheirfirm.Theysearchforinformationthatwillmakeiteasierforthefirmtoachievetheobjectivesforwhichthemanagershaveparticularresponsi