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IsaacNewton

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SirIsaacNewton

GodfreyKneller's1689portraitofIsaacNewton

（age46）

Born

4January1643（1643-01-04）

[OS:

25December1642][1]

Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth

Lincolnshire,England

Died

31March1727（1727-03-31）（aged 84）

[OS:

20March1726][1]

Kensington,Middlesex,England

Residence

England

Nationality

English

Fields

physics,mathematics,astronomy,naturalphilosophy,alchemy,Christiantheology

Institutions

UniversityofCambridge

RoyalSociety

RoyalMint

Almamater

TrinityCollege,Cambridge

Academicadvisors

IsaacBarrow[2]

BenjaminPulleyn[3][4]

Notablestudents

RogerCotes

WilliamWhiston

Known for

Newtonianmechanics

Universalgravitation

Infinitesimalcalculus

Optics

Binomialseries

Newton'smethod

PhilosophiæNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica

Influences

HenryMore[5]

PolishBrethren[6]

Influenced

NicolasFatiodeDuillier

JohnKeill

Signature

Notes

HismotherwasHannahAyscough.Hishalf-niecewasCatherineBarton.

SirIsaacNewtonFRS（4January1643–31March1727[OS:

25December1642–20March1726]）[1]wasanEnglishphysicist,mathematician,astronomer,naturalphilosopher,alchemist,andtheologian,andisconsideredbymanyscholarsandmembersofthegeneralpublictobeoneofthemostinfluentialpeopleinhumanhistory.HisPhilosophiæNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica（Latinfor"MathematicalPrinciplesOfNaturalPhilosophy";usuallycalledthePrincipia）,publishedin1687,isprobablythemostimportantscientificbookeverwritten.Itlaysthegroundworkformostofclassicalmechanics.Inthiswork,Newtondescribeduniversalgravitationandthethreelawsofmotion,whichdominatedthescientificviewofthephysicaluniverseforthenextthreecenturies.NewtonshowedthatthemotionsofobjectsonEarthandofcelestialbodiesaregovernedbythesamesetofnaturallaws,bydemonstratingtheconsistencybetweenKepler'slawsofplanetarymotionandhistheoryofgravitation;thusremovingthelastdoubtsaboutheliocentrismandadvancingtheScientificRevolution.

Newtonbuiltthefirstpracticalreflectingtelescope[7]anddevelopedatheoryofcolourbasedontheobservationthataprismdecomposeswhitelightintothemanycoloursthatformthevisiblespectrum.Healsoformulatedanempiricallawofcoolingandstudiedthespeedofsound.

Inmathematics,NewtonsharesthecreditwithGottfriedLeibnizforthedevelopmentofdifferentialandintegralcalculus.Healsodemonstratedthegeneralisedbinomialtheorem,developedNewton'smethodforapproximatingtherootsofafunction,andcontributedtothestudyofpowerseries.

Newtonwasalsohighlyreligious.HewasanunorthodoxChristian,andduringhislifetimeactuallywrotemoreonBiblicalhermeneuticsandoccultstudiesthanonscienceandmathematics,thesubjectsheismainlyassociatedwith.

Contents

[hide]

∙1Life

o1.1Earlylife

o1.2Middleyears

▪1.2.1Mathematics

▪1.2.2Optics

▪1.2.3Mechanicsandgravitation

o1.3Laterlife

o1.4Afterdeath

▪1.4.1Fame

▪1.4.2Commemorations

o1.5Inpopularculture

∙2Religiousviews

o2.1Effectonreligiousthought

o2.2Viewsoftheendoftheworld

∙3Enlightenmentphilosophers

∙4Counterfeiters

∙5Lawsofmotion

∙6Appleanalogy

∙7Writings

∙8Seealso

∙9Footnotesandreferences

∙10References

∙11Furtherreading

o11.1Religion

o11.2Primarysources

∙12Externallinks

o12.1Writingsbyhim

Life

Earlylife

Mainarticle:

EarlylifeofIsaacNewton

IsaacNewtonwasbornon4January1643[OS:

25December1642][1]atWoolsthorpeManorinWoolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth,ahamletinthecountyofLincolnshire.AtthetimeofNewton'sbirth,EnglandhadnotadoptedtheGregoriancalendarandthereforehisdateofbirthwasrecordedasChristmasDay,25December1642.Newtonwasbornthreemonthsafterthedeathofhisfather,aprosperousfarmeralsonamedIsaacNewton.Bornprematurely,hewasasmallchild;hismotherHannahAyscoughreportedlysaidthathecouldhavefitinsideaquartmug（≈1.1litres）.WhenNewtonwasthree,hismotherremarriedandwenttolivewithhernewhusband,theReverendBarnabusSmith,leavinghersoninthecareofhismaternalgrandmother,MargeryAyscough.TheyoungIsaacdislikedhisstepfatherandheldsomeenmitytowardshismotherformarryinghim,asrevealedbythisentryinalistofsinscommitteduptotheageof19:

"ThreateningmyfatherandmotherSmithtoburnthemandthehouseoverthem."[8]WhileNewtonwasonceengagedinhislateteenstoaMissStorey,henevermarried,beinghighlyengrossedinhisstudiesandwork.[9][10][11]

Newtonina1702portraitbyGodfreyKneller

IsaacNewton（Bolton,SarahK.FamousMenofScience.NY:

ThomasY.Crowell&Co.,1889）

Fromtheageofabouttwelveuntilhewasseventeen,NewtonwaseducatedatTheKing'sSchool,Grantham（wherehissignaturecanstillbeseenuponalibrarywindowsill）.Hewasremovedfromschool,andbyOctober1659,hewastobefoundatWoolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth,wherehismother,widowedbynowforasecondtime,attemptedtomakeafarmerofhim.Hehatedfarming.[12]HenryStokes,masterattheKing'sSchool,persuadedhismothertosendhimbacktoschoolsothathemightcompletehiseducation.Motivatedpartlybyadesireforrevengeagainstaschoolyardbully,hebecamethetop-rankedstudent.[13]

InJune1661,hewasadmittedtoTrinityCollege,Cambridgeasasizar—asortofwork-studyrole.[14]Atthattime,thecollege'steachingswerebasedonthoseofAristotle,butNewtonpreferredtoreadthemoreadvancedideasofmodernphilosophers,suchasDescartes,andofastronomerssuchasCopernicus,Galileo,andKepler.In1665,hediscoveredthegeneralisedbinomialtheoremandbegantodevelopamathematicaltheorythatwouldlaterbecomeinfinitesimalcalculus.SoonafterNewtonhadobtainedhisdegreeinAugust1665,theuniversitytemporarilyclosedasaprecautionagainsttheGreatPlague.AlthoughhehadbeenundistinguishedasaCambridgestudent,[15]Newton'sprivatestudiesathishomeinWoolsthorpeoverthesubsequenttwoyearssawthedevelopmentofhistheoriesoncalculus,opticsandthelawofgravitation.In1667,hereturnedtoCambridgeasafellowofTrinity.[16]Fellowswererequiredtobecomeordainedpriests,somethingNewtondesiredtoavoidduetohisunorthodoxviews.LuckilyforNewton,therewasnospecificdeadlineforordinationanditcouldbepostponedindefinitely.TheproblembecamemoreseverelaterwhenNewtonwaselectedfortheprestigiousLucasianChair.Forsuchasignificantappointment,ordainingnormallycouldnotbedodged.Nevertheless,NewtonmanagedtoavoiditbymeansofaspecialpermissionfromCharlesII（see"Middleyears"sectionbelow）.

Middleyears

Mathematics

Newton'sworkhasbeensaid"todistinctlyadvanceeverybranchofmathematicsthenstudied".[17]

Hisworkonthesubjectusuallyreferredtoasfluxionsorcalculusisseen,forexample,inamanuscriptofOctober1666,nowpublishedamongNewton'smathematicalpapers.[18]Arelatedsubjectwasinfiniteseries.Newton'smanuscript"Deanalysiperaequationesnumeroterminoruminfinitas"（"Onanalysisbyequationsinfiniteinnumberofterms"）wassentbyIsaacBarrowtoJohnCollinsinJune1669:

inAugust1669BarrowidentifieditsauthortoCollinsas"MrNewton,afellowofourCollege,andveryyoung ...butofanextraordinarygeniusandproficiencyinthesethings".[19]

NewtonlaterbecameinvolvedinadisputewithLeibnizoverpriorityinthedevelopmentofinfinitesimalcalculus.MostmodernhistoriansbelievethatNewtonandLeibnizdevelopedinfinitesimalcalculusindependently,althoughwithverydifferentnotations.OccasionallyithasbeensuggestedthatNewtonpublishedalmostnothingaboutituntil1693,anddidnotgiveafullaccountuntil1704,whileLeibnizbeganpublishingafullaccountofhismethodsin1684.（Leibniz'snotationand"differentialMethod",nowadaysrecognisedasmuchmoreconvenientnotations,wereadoptedbycontinentalEuropeanmathematicians,andafter1820orso,alsobyBritishmathematicians.）Suchasuggestion,however,failstonoticethecontentofcalculuswhichcriticsofNewton'stimeandmoderntimeshavepointedoutinBook1ofNewton'sPrincipiaitself（published1687）andinitsforerunnermanuscripts,suchasDemotucorporumingyrum（"Onthemotionofbodiesinorbit"）,of1684.ThePrincipiaisnotwritteninthelanguageofcalculuseitherasweknowitorasNewton's（later）'dot'notationwouldwriteit.Buthisworkextensivelyusesaninfinitesimalcalculusingeometricform,basedonlimitingvaluesoftheratiosofvanishingsmallquantities:

inthePrincipiaitselfNewtongavedemonstrationofthisunderthenameof'themethodoffirstandlastratios'[20]andexplainedwhyheputhisexpositionsinthisform,[21]remarkingalsothat'herebythesamethingisperformedasbythemethodofindivisibles'.

Becauseofthis,thePrincipiahasbeencalled"abookdensewiththetheoryandapplicationoftheinfinitesimalcalculus"inmoderntimes[22]and"lequelestpresquetoutdececalcul"（'nearlyallofitisofthiscalculus'）inNewton'stime.[23]Hisuseofmethodsinvolving"oneormoreordersoftheinfinitesimallysmall"ispresentinhisDeMotuCorporuminGyrumof1684[24]andinhispapersonmotion"duringthetwodecadespreceding1684".[25]

Newtonhadbeenreluctanttopublishhiscalculusbecausehefearedcontroversyandcriticism.[26]HehadaverycloserelationshipwithSwissmathematicianNicolasFatiodeDuillier,whofromthebeginningwasimpressedbyNewton'sgravitationaltheory.In1691,Duillierplann