现代语言学自考资料.docx

现代语言学自考资料.docx

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现代语言学自考资料

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第一章绪论

1/Whatislinguistics?

什么是语言学？

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.

2/Thescopeoflinguistics

语言学的研究范畴

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（普通语言学）

Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）

Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）

Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.（句法学）

Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）

Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）

Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）

Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.

Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）

3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写

Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.

Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时

Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.

Speechandwriting口头语与书面语

Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:

1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.

Langueandparole语言和言语

TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用

ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.

Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.

4/Whatislanguage?

语言的定义

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Sapiruses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.

5/Designfeatures

语言的甄别性特征

Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.

Arbitrariness语言的随意性

Arbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Itisnotentirelyarbitrary.

Example:

differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.

Productivity语言的创造性

Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.

Duality语言的二重性

Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.

Displacement语言的移位性

Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.

Culturaltransmission语言的文化传递性

Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.

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Chapter2Phonology音系学

1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage

语言的声音媒介

Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.

Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.

Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage（语言的声音媒介）.Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.

2．Whatisphonetics?

什么是语音学？

Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.

Therearethreebranchesofphonetics.Theyare:

Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.

Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.

Acousticphonetics（声学语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.

3.Organsofspeech

发音器官

Thepharyngealcavity咽腔thethroat

Theoralcavity口腔themouth

Thenasalcavity鼻腔thenose

Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinmanyways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynx（喉）beforeitreachesanyofthecavities.

Lyingacrosstheglottis（声门）arethevocalcords（声带）.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”.Thespeedofthevibrationdeterminesthepitchofthesound.

Thetongueisthemostflexibleintheoralcavity.

4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions

语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标

IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标

Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols（字母符号）only,calledbroadtranscription（宽式音标）.Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics（变音符号）,callednarrowtranscription（窄式音标）.

实例：

对pit/spit中p音的比较：

pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：

[phit]

spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：

[spit]

对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：

Leaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：

[li:

f]

Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]

Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]

Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]

5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

英语语音的分类

a）ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

英语辅音的分类

按发音方式分

Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:

[p][b][t][d][k][g]

Fricative擦音：

[f][v][s][z][][][s][][h]

Affricate塞擦音：

[t][d]

Liquid流音：

[l][r]

Nasal鼻音：

[m][n][]

Glide滑音：

[w][j]

按发音部位分

Bilabial双唇音：

[p][b][m][w]

Labiodental唇齿音：

[f][v]

Dental齿音：

[][]

Alveolar齿龈音：

[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]

Palatal硬腭音：

[][t][d][i]

Velar软腭音：

[k][g][]

Glottal声门音：

[h]

B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels

英语元音的分类

按舌头在口中的位置分：

Frontvowel前元音：

[i:

][i][e][][a]

Centralvowel中元音：

[:

][][]

Backvowel后元音：

[u:

][u][:

][][a:

]

按口形的大小分：

Closevowel闭元音：

[i:

][i][u:

][u]

Semi-closevowel半闭元音：

[e][:

]

Openvowel开元音：

[][a]

Semi-openvowel半开元音：

[][:

][][][a:

]

按唇形是否为圆分

Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音：

[i:

][i][e][][a][:

][][][a:

]

roundedvowel圆唇元音：

[u:

][u][:

][]

按语音的长短分

Longvowel长元音[i:

][:

][a:

][u:

][:

]

Shortvowel短元音[i][e][][a][][][u][]

在元音中还有一些（diphthong）双元音，包括：

[ei][ai][u][au][i][i][e][u]

6.Phonology音系学

Phonologyandphonetics

音系学和语音学

Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.

Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;

Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.

Example:

单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但