A Brief Summery of Lingusitics英语语言学戴炜栋版整理笔记.docx

A Brief Summery of Lingusitics英语语言学戴炜栋版整理笔记.docx

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ABriefSummeryofLingusitics英语语言学戴炜栋版整理笔记

戴炜栋版英语语言学整理笔记（2011）

ChapterOneIntroduction

1.1Whatislinguisticsss:

1.1.1Definition

1.linguisticssisgenerallydefinedasscientificstudyoflanguage.

2.linguisticstriestoanswerbasicquestionsaboutlanguage.Ittriestoprobeintovariousproblemsrelatedtolanguage.

3.linguisticsstudiesnotonlyparticularlanguages,butalsolanguageingeneral.

4.linguisticsisascientificoflanguagebasedonsystematicstudyofdataconductedwiththereferencetogeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure

1.1.2Stepsofscientificstudy

a.Collectandobservelanguagefacts

b.Formulatehypothesis

c.Checkandprovethevalidityofthehypothesis

1.1.3Thescopeoflinguisticss

1.Generallinguisticss:

tostudylanguageasawhole,whichdealswithbasicconceptsandtheoryappliedinanylinguisticsstudy

2.Branchesoflinguisticss

a.Phonetics（语音学）

Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticscommunication,mainlythephysicalpropertiesofalanguage.

b.Phonology（音位学）

Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogethertoconveymeanings

c.Morphology

Thestudyofhowsymbols,whichrepresentthesounds,areputtogethertoformwords.Forexample,withlettersk,i,s,wecanformwordskiss,ski,whicharedifferentinmeaning,however,wecannotformiksinEnglishasanEnglishword

d.Syntax

Thestudyoftherulesbywhichthewordsareputtogethertoformgrammaticallyacceptedsentences

e.Semantics

Thestudyofthemeaningconveyedbythesentencesorwords

f.Pragmatics

Thestudyofthemeaningofthewordsorsentencesinthecontextoflanguageuseratherthanthemeaninginisolation

g.Socialinguistics

Thestudyofsocialaspectsoflanguageortherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety

（a）.Thelanguageapersonuserevealshissocialbackground.

（b）.Thelanguagechangesarealwayscausedbythechangeofsociety.

h.Psycholinguistics

Itrelatedthestudyoflanguagetothestudyofpsychology.Ittriestoanswer

（a）Howthemindsworkwhenpeopleproducethelanguage

（b）Howinfantsacquiretheirmothertongue.

i.Appliedlinguistics

Thestudyoflanguageapplicationswhichsolvetheparticularproblems.Forexamplelanguageteachingandacquisition

1.1.4Someimportantdistinctions★:

A.Descriptionandprescription

（1）Descriptionandprescriptionaretwotypesoflanguagestudy.Descriptionistheanalysisofthelanguagethatpeopleactuallyuse.

（2）Prescriptionistolaydowntherulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviorinlanguageuse.Ittellspeoplewhatshouldsayandshouldnotsaywhenusingalanguage.

（3）ModernlinguisticsstudyisusuallydescriptivewhileoldEnglishisusuallyprescriptive

（4）Modernlinguisticsstudyisbelievedtobeobjectiveandscientificandthetaskformodernlinguisticsistodescribethelanguagepeopleuse.OldEnglish（TraditionalGrammar）istosetrulesforthecorrectusingoflanguage

B.Synchronicanddiachronic

（1）Synchronicstudyistostudylanguageatcertainpointoftimeinhistorywhilediachronicstudyistostudythehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.Diachronicstudydescribelanguagesastheydevelop.

（2）Today,synchronicstudyismorepopularbecausewithoutsynchronicstudy,diachronicstudywillbeverydifficult.

C.SpeechandWriting

Modernlinguisticsregardspokenlanguageastheprimarymediumoflanguage,thereasonsareasfollows

（a）.Accordingtolanguagerevolution,speechispriortowriting.Writingisusedforrecordingwhenitisnecessary,andtherearelanguagesthatdonothavewritingsystem

（b）.Speechplaysamoreimportantroleintermsofthemessageitconveys.

（c）.Whenacquiringmothertongue,spokenlanguageisfirstlyacquiredand

writingistaughtinschool

（d）.Speechrevealstruefeaturesofalanguagebutwritingsystemisarecordformofspeech

D.Langueandparole

ThesetwoconceptswerecomeupwithbySaussure

1.Langueistheabstractlinguisticssystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Itisasetofrulesthatallthelanguageusershavetoabideby.

2.Paroleistherealizationoflangueinpracticaluse.Paroleisconcreteandvariousfrompersontoperson.Itreferstothenaturallyoccurredoflanguageevents

3.Sausurrebelievedthatparoleistooconfusingtobesystematicallystudiedandwhatlinguisticsstudyshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparoleandlinguistsshouldstudylangueratherthanparole.

E.Competenceandperformance

a）ThesetwoconceptswerecomeupwithbyChomsky.Competenceistheidealusers’knowledgeoflanguagewhileperformanceistherealizationofthecompetence.

b）Chomskybelievesthatalthoughspeakershaveacquiretherulesforproducingcorrectsentences,theywillproduceungrammaticalsentencesduetopersonalorenvironmentalreasons.Therefore,competenceiswhatshouldbestudiedinlinguisticsstudy

c）索绪尔和乔姆斯基的理论比较：

BothSaussureandChomskybelievethattheabstractsystemsharedbylanguageusersshouldbestudiedwithouttheconsiderationofindividualityThedifferenceisSaussureviewtheabstractsystemfromthesocialaspect（Langue）andbelievethatlangueisasetofconventionsformemberstoobeywhileChomskyregardtheabstractsystemasapropertyofmindandcallitcompetencefrompsychologicalaspects.

F.Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics

1.ThestartofmodernlinguisticsisthepublicationofSaussure’sCourseinGenerallinguistics

2.Differencesbetweentraditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics

a.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivebutmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive

b.Traditionalgrammaremphasizeswrittenlanguagewhilemodernlinguisticsregardsspokenlanguageastheprimaryofalanguage

c.ModernlinguisticsdoesnotjudgealanguagewiththestandardofanotherandEnglishisnotforcedtotheLatinforminmodernlinguistics.

1.2Whatislanguage★

1.2.1Definitionoflanguage

Languageisasystemofarbitraryandvocalsymbolsforhumancommunication

a.Arbitrary:

Thereisnoconnectionsbetweensoundsandthemeaningstheystandfor

b.Vocal:

Theprimarymediumforlanguageissymbols

c.Human:

Languageishumanspecific

1.2.2DesignFeature

a.Arbitrariness

Arbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionsbetweenmeaningandsounds.Aexampleisthatdifferentlanguagesusedifferentwordsforthesameobjects.Arbitrarinessmakesitpossibleforlanguagestohaveunlimitedsourcesofexpressions

b.Productivity

Productivitymeansthatlanguageuserscanconstructandinterpretgrammaticallyacceptedsentencesthathaveneverbeenusedbeforequickly.Productivityishumanspecific

c.Duality

Dualitymeansthatlanguagehastwolevelssoundlevelandmeaninglevel.Soundlevelisalowerlevelwithoutmeaning.However,atthehigherlevel,thesoundsaregroupedintosmallunitesofmeaningandthenintosentences.Anexampleissoundslike/k/、/p/、/a:

/aremeaninglessbuttheycanbearrangedinto/pa:

k/（park）or/ka:

p/（carp）whicharemeaningful.Dualityallowspeopletotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge

d.Displacement

Displacementallowspeopletotalkaboutthingswhichareremovedfromtheimmediatesituationofthespeakers.Thispropertyallowsspeakerstotalkaboutthingsfreefromseparationoftimeandspace

e.Culturaltransmition

Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.wearebornwiththeabilityforacquiringlanguage.However,thedetailofalanguageisculturallytransmittedbylanguageteachingandlearning

ChapterTwoPhonology

2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage

（1）.Speechandsoundaretwomediausedbynaturallanguageforcommunication

（2）.Twothirdsoflanguagesdonothavewrittenformstoday

（3）.Linguistsareinterestedinthesoundsproducedbyspeechorgansandplayanimportantroleinlinguisticscommunication.

（4）.Themeaningfulsoundsinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediaoflanguage.Themeaningfulindividualsoundiscalledspeechsound.

2.2Phonetics

2.2.1whatisphonetics

A.Phoneticsisthestudyofphonicmediaoflanguage

B.Phoneticsstudiessoundsfromthreerelatedbutdistinctaspects.

a.Articulationphonetics（发声语音学）:

tostudythesoundfromspeakers’pointofview（howweproducesounds）

b.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）:

tostudysoundfromthehears’pointofview（howwehearsounds）

c.Acousticphonetics（语音传播学）:

tostudyhowsoundistransmittedbylookingatsoundwaves

d.Articulatoryphoneticshasthelongesthistoryamongthreebranches.Acousticphoneticsstudiesphysicalpropertiesofsoundswithspectrographs（频谱仪）

2.2.2Organsofspeech:

Thearticulatoryapparatuscontainspharyngealcavity（咽腔）,oralcavity（口腔）andnasalcavity（鼻腔）

1.Pharyngealcavity

①Glottis（声门）isthefirstplacewheresoundmodificationmayoccur.

②Vocalcordslieacrossglottis,theycanbeheldtightlytocutoffstreams

③Whenthevocalcordsarepartiallyopen,thevibrationofvocalcordsmayresultinvoicedsoundsincludingvowelsandsomeconsonants

④Whenthevocalcordsaredownwidetoletairgothrough,thesoundswillbevoiceless（由此可见，声带是否震动决定了这个音是带声还是不带声，而无法区别音是元音还是辅音）

2.Oralcavity

①Thegreatestsourceformodificationofairstreamisfoundinoralcavity

②Oralcavityincludestongue,uvular（小舌）,softplate（软腭）,hardplate（硬腭）teethridge（齿龈）,teeth,lips.Tongueisthemostflexibleamongtheall.

3.Nasalcavity:

①Nasalcavityandoralcavityareconnectedwitheachother

②Thesoftpalatecandownbacktoclosethepassagesothattheaircanonlycomefrommouth,whichwillproduceunassimilatedsounds（无鼻音化音）includingvowelsandmostconsonants.Ifthepassageisopentolettheairgofromthenose,thesoundsproducedarecallednasalconsonantsincluding[m]、[n]、[ŋ]

2.2.3