完整word版语言学概论杨忠.docx

完整word版语言学概论杨忠.docx

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完整word版语言学概论杨忠

1.Whatarethecategoriesoflexicalmeaning？

Lexicalmeaningincludes：

a）referentialmeaning（alsodenotativemeaning）。

b）Associativemeanings.Referentialmeaningisthecentralmeaninganditismorestableanduniversal.Associativemeaningsaremeaningsaremeaningsthathingeonreferentialmeaning,whicharelessstableandmoreculture-specific.

Typesofassociativemeanings：

connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,collectivemeaning

2。

Whatarethecomponentsofmetaphor？

Therearetwopositionsonthefunctionofmetaphors:

a）theclassicalviewseesmetaphorarhetoricaldevice；b）anotherviewholdsmetaphoracognitivedevice。

Metaphors一spossiblepreciselybecausetherearemetaphorsinaperson’sconceptualsystems。

Allmetaphorsarecomposedoftwodomains：

targetdomain（alsotenor）andsourcedomain（vehicle）.

3.Howdoestransformationalgrammaraccountforsentence-relatedness?

1）AccordingtoChomsky,agrammarasthetacitsharedknowledgeofallspeakersisasystemoffiniterulesbywhichaninfinitenumberofsentencescanbegenerated。

Heattemptstoaccountforthisaspectofsyntaxbypostulatingthatdeepstructuresandsurfacestructures.

2）Deepstructuresarethebasicstructuresgeneratedbyphrasestructurerules.

3）Surfacestructuresarederivedstructures,thestructuresofsentencesthatweactuallyspeak。

Surfacestructuresarederivedfromdeepstructuresthroughtransformationalruleswhichincludereplacement,insertion,deletionandcoping,etc。

4.Onwhatbasisdolinguistsregardhumanlanguageasspecies—specific（uniquetohumans）？

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication。

Manyphilosophersandlinguistsbelievethatlanguageisuniquetoman。

Languageisahumantraitthatsetsusapartfromotherlivingcreatures.Theyspelloutanumberoffeaturesoflanguagewhicharenotfoundinanimalcommunicationsystems.Thesefeatures：

creativity，duality，arbitrariness，displacement,culturaltransmission,interchangeabilityandreflexivity。

Theseareuniversalfeaturespossessedbyallhumanlanguages.Althoughsomeanimalcommunicationsystemspossess，toaverylimiteddegree,oneoranotherofthesefeaturesexceptcreativityandduality,noneisfoundtohaveallthefeatures。

Onthisbasislinguiststendtoconcludethathumanlanguagesarequalitativelydifferentformanimalcommunicationsystems。

5.Whatpartofsyntaxcanphrasestructurerulesaccountforandwhattheycannot？

Phrasestructurerulesarerulesthatspecifytheconstituentsofsyntacticcategories。

Theserulesarepartofspeakers’syntacticknowledge，whichgoverntheconstructionofsentences。

Therearealotofpartofsyntacticknowledge,includingstructuralambiguity（whichstringsofwordshavemorethanonemeaning）,wordsorder（differentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings），grammaticalrelations（whatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly），recursion（therepeateduseofthesamerulestocreateinfinitesentences）,sentencerelatedness（sentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated），andsyntacticcategories（aclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality）etc.Phrasestructurerulescanaccountforstructuralambiguity,wordorder,grammaticalrelations,recursion,andsyntacticcategories;buttheycannotaccountforsentencerelatedness.

6.HowdosociolinguistsclassifythevarietiesofEnglish？

Thetermvarietyisthelabelgiventotheformofalanguageusedbyanygroupofspeakersorusedinaparticularfield.Avarietyischaracterizedbythebasiclexicon，phonology,syntaxsharedbymembersofthegroup。

Varietiesofalanguageareoffourtypes：

thestandardvariety,regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.

Aregionaldialectisavarietyofalanguagespokenbypeoplelivinginanarea.TheEnglishlanguagehasmanyregionaldialects.BritishEnglish,AmericanEnglish，AustralianEnglish.IndianEnglish，SouthAfricanEnglish，etc.areallregionalvarietiesofthelanguage.Onedialectisdistinctivefromanotherphonologically，lexicallyandgrammatically。

7。

Whatarethefunctionsofsupra-segmentalfeatures？

Thephoneticfeatures,distinctiveornon—distinctive，thatwehavediscussedsofarmaybepropertiesofsinglesegments.Inthissectionwewilllookatfeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorsequenceoftwoormoresegments，whicharecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures。

Thesefeaturesarealsodistinctivefeatures。

Theyarefoundinsuchunitsofsyllables,words,phrasesandsentences.Themostwidelyfoundsuprasegmentalfeaturesarestress，intonationandtone.

Stressisdefinedastheperceivedprominence（comparativeloudness）ofoneormoresyllableelementsoverothersinaword。

Thisdefinitionimpliesthatstressisarelativenotion。

Intonation:

whenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas。

Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker。

InEnglish，therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:

fall,riseandfall-rise.Toneisthevariationofpitchatthewordleveltodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceofsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones。

Englishisnotatonelanguage.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage。

Intonationandstressgenerallyoccursimultaneouslyinutterance。

Whenintonationcontourfallsonasyllable,thenucleusisstressedandthevowelisnaturallylengthenedabit.Inthemeantime，thereisalittlepauseafterthesyllable。

Thissimultaneousfunctioningofthefeaturesservestohighlighttheinformationfocus,ortoeliminateambiguity（doubleinterpretationsofthesamephraseorsentence）.

8.Whatareaspectsofsyntacticknowledge?

Syntacticknowledgeistheknowingofwhichstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhicharenot.Inaddition，itincludes:

1）structuralambiguity2）wordorder3）grammaticalrelations4）recursion5）sentencerelatedness6）syntacticcategories.

9。

Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofcomponentialanalysis？

1st,itisabreakthroughintheformalrepresentationofmeaning.Onceformallyrepresented，meaningcomponentscanbeseen.2nd，itrevealstheimprecisenessoftheterminologyinthetraditionalapproachtomeaninganalysis.Lookingatthesemanticformulaofmanandwomanagainyoucanseethatitisnottruethatthetotalmeaningofonewordcontrastswiththatoftheother。

Itismerelyinonesemanticfeaturethatthetwowordscontrast。

Whenwelookatthesemanticformulaeofmanandfather，wefindthatallthesemanticfeaturesofmanareincludedinthesemanticformulaoffather。

Thenwereachadifferentconclusionfromcommonsenseinregardtotherelationbetweenmanandfather.Isthiscontradictory？

TheanswerisNo。

Theobviousfactthatmanincludesfatherisderivedfromtheperspectiveofreference。

Componentialanalysisexaminesthecomponentsofsense。

Themoresemanticfeaturesawordhas,thenarroweritsreferenceitis。

Thelimitationsofcomponentialanalysisarealsoapparent。

Itcannotbeappliedtotheanalysisofalllexicon，merelytowordswithinthesamesemanticfield。

Itiscontroversialwhethersemanticfeaturesareuniversalprimesofwordmeaningsinalllanguage.Nevertheless，CAissofaramostinfluentialapproachinthestructuralanalysisoflexicalmeaning.

11.Whyislinguisticsavastfieldofstudy？

Linguisticsisabroadfieldofstudy，becauselanguageisacomplicatedentitywithmanylayersandfacets.Thereareanumberofdivisionsoflinguistics,whichcanbeputintotwocategories。

1）Intra—disciplinarydivisions：

thestudyoflanguageingeneralisoftentermedgenerallinguistics.Itisbasedontheviewthatlanguageasasystemiscomposedofthreeaspects:

sound,structureandmeaning。

2）Inter-disciplinarydivisions。

a）Sociologydealswithlanguageandculture.b）Psycholinguisticsdealswiththerelationbetweenlanguageandmindc）appliedlinguisticsisconcernedwiththeapplicationoflinguistictheoriesanddescriptionsinotherfields。

Allabovethreebelongtosociolinguistics。

12.Howislinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

1）Traditionalgrammarisprescriptiveandmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive。

2）TraditionalgrammaticalcategoriesaremerelybasedonEuropeanlanguagebutlinguisticstudiesalllanguages.

3）Traditionalgrammarlacksatheoreticalframework,whilemodernlinguisticsistheoreticallyratherthanpedagogicallyoriented.

13。

Howarespeechsoundsdescribed?

Thestudyofspeechsoundsisphoneticswhichincludes3parts:

1）articulatoryphonetics2）acousticphonetics3）auditoryphonetics.Articulatoryphoneticsistheprimaryconcerninlinguistics,inwhichspeechsoundisdescribedwithin3sides:

Thedescriptionofconsonants：

a）placeofarticulationb）mannersofarticulationc）voicingd）aspiration

Thedescriptionofvowels：

a）monophthongsb）diphthongsc）liproundingd）tensity

14。

Differencebetweenlinguisticcompetenceandcommunicativecompetence

1）LinguistslikeChomskywhoarenotconcernedwithlanguageuseproposethetermlinguisticcompetencetoaccountforaspeaker’sknowledgeofhisorherlanguage.

2）SociolinguistslikeDellHymesproposecommunicativecompetenceasthemostgeneraltermtoaccountforboththetacitknowledgeoflanguageandtheabilitytouseit。

AccordingtoHymes，thereare4parametersthatunderlieaspeaker’scommunicativecompetence，namelytheabilitytojudge：

a）whethersthispossible.b）feasiblec）appropriate4）done.

15。

Howarewordsdecomposedintotheirconstituents

1）Wordsarecomposedofoneormorethanonemorphemes.

2）Morphemesarethesmallestmeaningfulunitoflang