完整word版语言学概论杨忠.docx

1、完整word版语言学概论杨忠1. What are the categories of lexical meaning？Lexical meaning includes： a) referential meaning （also denotative meaning)。 b) Associative meanings. Referential meaning is the central meaning and it is more stable and universal. Associative meanings are meanings are meanings that hinge o

2、n referential meaning, which are less stable and more culture-specific. Types of associative meanings： connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collective meaning2。 What are the components of metaphor？There are two positions on the function of metaphors: a） the clas

3、sical view sees metaphor a rhetorical device； b) another view holds metaphor a cognitive device。 Metaphors 一s possible precisely because there are metaphors in a persons conceptual systems。All metaphors are composed of two domains： target domain (also tenor) and source domain （vehicle）.3. How does t

4、ransformational grammar account for sentence- relatedness?1） According to Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated。 He attempts to account for this aspect of syntax by postulating that deep

5、structures and surface structures.2） Deep structures are the basic structures generated by phrase structure rules.3) Surface structures are derived structures, the structures of sentences that we actually speak。 Surface structures are derived from deep structures through transformational rules which

6、 include replacement, insertion, deletion and coping, etc。4. On what basis do linguists regard human language as speciesspecific （unique to humans）？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。 Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man。 La

7、nguage is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number of features of language which are not found in animal communication systems. These features： creativity， duality， arbitrariness， displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability and reflexivity。 Th

8、ese are universal features possessed by all human languages. Although some animal communication systems possess， to a very limited degree, one or another of these features except creativity and duality, none is found to have all the features。 On this basis linguists tend to conclude that human langu

9、ages are qualitatively different form animal communication systems。5. What part of syntax can phrase structure rules account for and what they cannot？Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories。 These rules are part of speakers syntactic knowledge， which go

10、vern the construction of sentences。There are a lot of part of syntactic knowledge, including structural ambiguity (which strings of words have more than one meaning）, words order （different arrangements of the same words have different meanings)， grammatical relations (what element relates to what o

11、ther element directly or indirectly）， recursion (the repeated use of the same rules to create infinite sentences), sentence relatedness (sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related）， and syntactic categories （a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without

12、loss of grammaticality） etc. Phrase structure rules can account for structural ambiguity, word order, grammatical relations, recursion, and syntactic categories; but they cannot account for sentence relatedness.6. How do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English？The term variety is the label

13、given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular field. A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon， phonology, syntax shared by members of the group。 Varieties of a language are of four types： the standard variety, regional dialects, sociolects and registers

14、.A regional dialect is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area. The English language has many regional dialects. British English, American English， Australian English. Indian English， South African English， etc. are all regional varieties of the language. One dialect is distinctiv

15、e from another phonologically， lexically and grammatically。7。 What are the functions of supra-segmental features？The phonetic features, distinctive or nondistinctive， that we have discussed so far may be properties of single segments. In this section we will look at features that are found over a se

16、gment or sequence of two or more segments， which are called suprasegmental features。 These features are also distinctive features。 They are found in such units of syllables, words, phrases and sentences. The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress， intonation and tone.Stress is defined

17、as the perceived prominence (comparative loudness） of one or more syllable elements over others in a word。 This definition implies that stress is a relative notion。 Intonation: when we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas。 The same sentence uttered with different intonation may e

18、xpress different attitude of the speaker。 In English， there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise and fall-rise. Tone is the variation of pitch at the word level to distinguish words. The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones。 English is not a ton

19、e language. Chinese is a typical tone language。Intonation and stress generally occur simultaneously in utterance。 When intonation contour falls on a syllable, the nucleus is stressed and the vowel is naturally lengthened a bit. In the meantime， there is a little pause after the syllable。 This simult

20、aneous functioning of the features serves to highlight the information focus, or to eliminate ambiguity （double interpretations of the same phrase or sentence).8. What are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. I

21、n addition， it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2） word order 3) grammatical relations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.9。 The advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis？1st, it is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning. Once formally represent

22、ed， meaning components can be seen. 2nd， it reveals the impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis. Looking at the semantic formula of man and woman again you can see that it is not true that the total meaning of one word contrasts with that of the other。 It is

23、merely in one semantic feature that the two words contrast。 When we look at the semantic formulae of man and father， we find that all the semantic features of man are included in the semantic formula of father。 Then we reach a different conclusion from common sense in regard to the relation between

24、man and father. Is this contradictory？ The answer is No。 The obvious fact that man includes father is derived from the perspective of reference。 Componential analysis examines the components of sense。 The more semantic features a word has, the narrower its reference it is。The limitations of componen

25、tial analysis are also apparent。 It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicon， merely to words within the same semantic field。 It is controversial whether semantic features are universal primes of word meanings in all language. Nevertheless， CA is so far a most influential approach in the str

26、uctural analysis of lexical meaning. 11. Why is linguistics a vast field of study？Linguistics is a broad field of study， because language is a complicated entity with many layers and facets. There are a number of divisions of linguistics, which can be put into two categories。 1) Intradisciplinary di

27、visions： the study of language in general is often termed general linguistics. It is based on the view that language as a system is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning。 2） Inter-disciplinary divisions。 a） Sociology deals with language and culture. b） Psycholinguistics deals with

28、the relation between language and mind c) applied linguistics is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields。 All above three belong to sociolinguistics。12. How is linguistics different from traditional grammar?1) Traditional grammar is prescriptive and mod

29、ern linguistics is descriptive。2) Traditional grammatical categories are merely based on European language but linguistic studies all languages.3) Traditional grammar lacks a theoretical framework, while modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.13。 How are speech sounds

30、 described?The study of speech sounds is phonetics which includes 3 parts: 1) articulatory phonetics 2） acoustic phonetics 3） auditory phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics, in which speech sound is described within 3 sides: The description of consonants： a) place o

31、f articulation b) manners of articulation c) voicing d) aspiration The description of vowels： a） monophthongs b) diphthongs c） lip rounding d） tensity14。 Difference between linguistic competence and communicative competence 1） Linguists like Chomsky who are not concerned with language use propose th

32、e term linguistic competence to account for a speakers knowledge of his or her language.2） Sociolinguists like Dell Hymes propose communicative competence as the most general term to account for both the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it。 According to Hymes， there are 4 parameter

33、s that underlie a speakers communicative competence， namely the ability to judge： a） whether sth is possible. b） feasible c） appropriate 4） done.15。 How are words decomposed into their constituents 1) Words are composed of one or more than one morphemes.2) Morphemes are the smallest meaningful unit of lang