旅游英语期末考试范围中国历史.docx

旅游英语期末考试范围中国历史.docx

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旅游英语期末考试范围中国历史

旅游英语期末考试范围

1.

NineProvinces

ThetermNineProvinces（Chinese:

九州;pinyin:

JiǔZhōu）isusedinancientChinesehistoriestorefertoterritorialdivisionsorislandsduringtheXiaandShangdynasties,andhasnowcometosymbolicallyrepresentChina."Province"isthewordusedtotranslatezhou（州）–sincebeforetheTangdynasty（618–907CE）,itwasthelargestChineseterritorialdivision.AlthoughthecurrentdefinitionoftheNineProvincescanbedatedtotheSpringandAutumnandWarringStatesperiods,itwasnotuntiltheEasternHandynastythattheNineProvincesweretreatedasactualadministrativeregions.

ThemostprevalentaccountoftheNineProvincescomesfromtheYuGongorTributeofYusectionoftheBookofXia（夏書）,collectedintheBookofDocuments.ItwasthereinrecordedthatYutheGreatdividedtheworldintothenineprovincesofJi（冀）,Yan（兗）,Qing（青）,Xu（徐）,Yang（揚）,Jing（荊）,Yu（豫）,Liang（梁）,andYong（雍）.Thegeographysection（釋地）oftheancientEryaencyclopediaalsocitesnineprovinces,butwithYouandYing（營）listedinsteadofQingandLiang.Inthe"ClanResponsibilities"（職方氏）sectionofRitualsofZhou,theprovincesincludeYouandBingbutnotXuandLiang.TheLüshiChunqiu"InitialSurvey"（有始覽）sectionmentionsYoubutnotLiang.

Traditionally,theBookofDocumentsisthoughttodepictthedivisionsduringtheXiadynasty,theEryathoseoftheShangdynasty;theRitualsofZhoutheZhoudynasty,andtheLüshiChunqiutheconceptandactualterritorialdistributionoftheNineProvincesduringtheSpringandAutumnandWarringStatesperiods.TheLüshiChunqiucontainsthefollowingpassageonthelocationofthenineprovincesandtheirgeneralcorrespondencewiththestatesofthetime:

Thewords"NineProvinces"donotappearinanyancientoracleboneinscriptions,suchthatmanyscholarsdonotthinkYutheGreatcreatedtheNineProvincesaswastraditionallythought.Somesuggestthename"Jiuzhou",whichcametomean"NineProvinces",wasactuallyaplace,orthedivisionswerewithinShandong.

UnlikeSima'slistofShangdynastykings,whichiscloselymatchedbyinscriptionsonoraclebonesfromlateinthatperiod,recordsofXiarulershavenotyetbeenfoundinarcheologicalexcavations.

2.名词解释：

Supportingtheking,andexpellingthebarbarians'（尊王攘夷zunwangrangyi）;

3.TheFiveHegemons（685-591BC）

HegemonyofQi（685–643BC）

ThefirsthegemonwasDukeHuanofQi（r.685–643BC）.Withthehelpofhisminister,GuanZhong,DukeHuanreformedQitocentralizeitspowerstructure.Thestateconsistedof15"townships"withthedukeandtwoseniorministerseachinchargeoffive;militaryfunctionswerealsounitedwithcivilones.Theseandrelatedreformsprovidedthestate,alreadypowerfulfromcontroloftradecrossroads,withagreaterabilitytomobilizeresourcesthanthemorelooselyorganizedstates.

By667BC,Qihadclearlyshownitseconomicandmilitarypredominance,andDukeHuanassembledtheleadersofLu,Song,Chen,andZheng,whoelectedhimastheirleader.Soonafter,KingHuiofZhouconferredthetitleofbà（hegemon）,givingDukeHuanroyalauthorityinmilitaryventures.AnimportantbasisforjustifyingQi'sdominanceovertheotherstateswaspresentedintheslogan'supportingtheking,andexpellingthebarbarians'（尊王攘夷zunwangrangyi）;theroleofsubsequenthegemonswouldalsobeframedinthisway,astheprimarydefenderandsupporterofnominalZhouauthorityandtheexistingorder.Usingthisauthority,DukeHuanintervenedinapowerstruggleinLu;protectedYanfromencroachingWesternRongnomads（664BC）;droveoffNorthernDinomadsafterthey'dinvadedWey（660BC）andXing（659BC）,providingthepeoplewithprovisionsandprotectivegarrisonunits;andledanallianceofeightstatestoconquerCaiandtherebyblockthenorthwardexpansionofChu（656BC）.

Athisdeathin643BC,fiveofDukeHuan'ssonscontendedforthethrone,badlyweakeningthestatesothatitwasnolongerregardedasthehegemon.Fornearlytenyears,norulerheldthetitle.

HegemonyofSong（643–637BC）

DukeXiangofSongattemptedtoclaimthehegemonyinthewakeofQi'sdecline,perhapsdrivenbyadesiretorestoretheShangDynastyfromwhichSonghaddescended.HehostedpeaceconfencesinthesamestyleasQihaddone,andconductedaggessivemilitarycampaignsagainsthisrivals.DukeXianghowevermethisendwhen,againsttheadviceofhisstaff,heattackedthemuchlargerstateofChu.TheSongforcesweredefeatedatthebattleofHongin638BC,andthedukehimselfdiedinthefollowingyearfromaninjurysustainedinthebattle.AfterXiang'sdeathhissuccessorsadoptedamoremodestforeignpolicy,bettersuitedtothecountry'ssmallsize.AsDukeXiangwasneverofficiallyrecognizedashegemonbytheKingofZhou,notallsourceslisthimasoneoftheFiveHegemons.

HegemonyofJin（636–628BC）

WhenDukeWenofJincametopowerin636BC,hecapitalizedonthereformsofhisfather,DukeXian（r.676–651BC）,whohadcentralizedthestate,killedoffrelativeswhomightthreatenhisauthority,conqueredsixteensmallerstates,andevenabsorbedsomeRongandDipeoplestomakeJinmuchmorepowerfulthanithadbeenpreviously.WhenheassistedKingXianginasuccessionstrugglein635BC,XiangawardedJinwithstrategicallyvaluableterritorynearChengzhou.

DukeWenofJinthenusedhisgrowingpowertocoordinateamilitaryresponsewithQi,Qin,andSongagainstChu,whichhadbegunencroachingnorthwardafterthedeathofDukeHuánofQi.WithadecisiveChulossattheBattleofChengpu（632BC）,DukeWen'sloyaltytotheZhoukingwasrewardedataninterstateconferencewhenKingXīangawardedhimthetitleofbà.

AfterthedeathofDukeWenin628BC,agrowingtensionmanifestedininterstateviolencethatturnedsmallerstates,particularlythoseattheborderbetweenJinandChu,intositesofconstantwarfare;QiandQinalsoengagedinnumerousinterstateskirmisheswithJinoritsalliestoboosttheirownpower.[24]

HegemonyofQin（628–621BC）

DukeMuofQinhadascendedthethronein659BCandforgedanalliancewithJinbymarryinghisdaughtertoDukeWen.In624BC,heestablishedhegemonyoverthewesternRongbarbariansandbecamethemostpowerfullordofthetime.Howeverhedidnotchairanyalliancewithotherstatesnorwasheofficiallyrecognizedashegemonbytheking.Therefore,notallsourcesaccepthimasoneoftheFiveHegemons.

HegemonyofChu（613–591BC）

KingZhuangofChuexpandedthebordersofChuwellnorthoftheYangtzeRiver,threateningtheCentralStatesinmodernHenan.AtonepointtheChuforcesadvancedtojustoutsidetheroyalcapitalofZhou,uponwhichKingZhuangsentamessengertoaskhowheavyandbulkytheNineCauldronswere;implyinghemightsoonarrangetohavethemmovedtohisowncapital.IntheendtheZhoucapitalwasspared,andChushiftedfocustoharassingthenearbystateofZheng.Theonce-hegemonstateofJinintervenedtorescueZhengfromtheChuinvadersbutwereresolutelydefeated,whichmarkstheascensionofChuasthedominantstateofthetime.

Despitehisdefactohegemony,KingZhuang'sself-proclaimedtitleof"king"wasneverrecognizedbytheZhoustates.IntheSpringandAutumnAnnalsheisdefiantlyreferredtobytheChuruler'soriginaltitle"viscount"（thesecond-lowestnoblerank）,evenatatimewhenhedominatedmostofsouthChina.LaterhistorianshoweveralwaysincludehimasoneoftheFiveHegemons.

4.HundredSchoolsofThought

TheHundredSchoolsofThought（simplifiedChinese:

诸子百家;Wade–Giles:

chu-tzupai-chia;literally:

"allphilosophershundredschools"）werephilosophersandschoolsthatflourishedfromthe6thcenturyto221BC,duringtheSpringandAutumnperiodandtheWarringStatesperiodofancientChina.

AneraofgreatculturalandintellectualexpansioninChina,itwasfraughtwithchaosandbloodybattles,butitwasalsoknownastheGoldenAgeofChinesephilosophybecauseabroadrangeofthoughtsandideasweredevelopedanddiscussedfreely.ThisphenomenonhasbeencalledtheContentionofaHundredSchoolsofThought（百家爭鳴/百家争鸣;pai-chiacheng-ming;"hundredschoolscontend"）.ThethoughtsandideasdiscussedandrefinedduringthisperiodhaveprofoundlyinfluencedlifestylesandsocialconsciousnessuptothepresentdayinEastAsiancountriesandtheEastAsiandiasporaaroundtheworld.Theintellectualsocietyofthiserawascharacterizedbyitinerantscholars,whowereoftenemployedbyvariousstaterulersasadvisersonthemethodsofgovernment,war,anddiplomacy.

ThisperiodendedwiththeriseoftheimperialQinDynastyandthesubsequentpurgeofdissent.

AtraditionalsourceforthisperiodistheShiji,orRecordsoftheGrandHistorianbySimaQian.TheautobiographicalsectionoftheShiji,the"TaishigongZixu"（太史公自序）,referstotheschoolsofthoughtdescribedbelow.

Confucianism

Confucianism（儒家;Rújiā;Ju-chia;"Schoolofscholars"）isthebodyofthoughtthatarguablyhadthemostenduringeffectsonChineselife.ItswrittenlegacyliesintheConfucianClassics,whichlaterbecamethefoundationoftraditionalsociety.Confucius（551–479BC）,orKongzi（"MasterKong"）,lookedbacktotheearlydaysoftheZhoudynastyforanidealsocio-politicalorder.Hebelievedthattheonlyeffectivesystemofgovernmentnecessitatedprescribedrelationshipsforeachindividual:

"Lettherulerbearulerandthesubjectasubject".Furthermore,hecontendedthatakingmustbevirtuousinordertorulestateproperly.ToConfucius,thefunctionsofgovernmentandsocialstratificationwerefactsoflifetobesustainedbyethicalvalues;thushisidealhumanwas