旅游英语期末考试范围中国历史.docx

1、旅游英语期末考试范围中国历史旅游英语期末考试范围1.Nine ProvincesThe term Nine Provinces (Chinese: 九州; pinyin: Ji Zhu) is used in ancient Chinese histories to refer to territorial divisions or islands during the Xia and Shang dynasties, and has now come to symbolically represent China. Province is the word used to translate

2、 zhou (州) since before the Tang dynasty(618907 CE), it was the largest Chinese territorial division. Although the current definition of the Nine Provinces can be dated to the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, it was not until the Eastern Han dynasty that the Nine Provinces were treated a

3、s actual administrative regions. The most prevalent account of the Nine Provinces comes from the Yu Gong or Tribute of Yu section of the Book of Xia (夏書), collected in the Book of Documents. It was there in recorded that Yu the Great divided the world into the nine provinces of Ji (冀), Yan (兗), Qing

4、 (青), Xu(徐), Yang (揚), Jing (荊), Yu (豫), Liang (梁), and Yong(雍). The geography section (釋地) of the ancient Erya encyclopedia also cites nine provinces, but withYou and Ying (營) listed instead of Qing and Liang. In the Clan Responsibilities (職方氏) section ofRituals of Zhou, the provinces include You a

5、nd Bing but not Xu and Liang. The Lshi Chunqiu Initial Survey (有始覽) section mentions You but not Liang.Traditionally, the Book of Documents is thought to depict the divisions during the Xia dynasty, the Eryathose of the Shang dynasty; the Rituals of Zhou the Zhou dynasty, and the Lshi Chunqiu the co

6、ncept and actual territorial distribution of the Nine Provinces during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The Lshi Chunqiu contains the following passage on the location of the nine provinces and their general correspondence with the states of the time:The words Nine Provinces do not

7、appear in any ancient oracle bone inscriptions, such that many scholars do not think Yu the Great created the Nine Provinces as was traditionally thought. Some suggest the name Jiuzhou, which came to mean Nine Provinces, was actually a place, or the divisions were within Shandong. Unlike Simas list

8、of Shang dynasty kings, which is closely matched by inscriptions on oracle bones from late in that period, records of Xia rulers have not yet been found in archeological excavations. 2.名词解释：Supporting the king, and expelling the barbarians (尊王攘夷 zun wang rang yi);3. The Five Hegemons (685-591BC )Heg

9、emony of Qi (685643 BC)The first hegemon was Duke Huan of Qi (r. 685643 BC). With the help of his minister, Guan Zhong, Duke Huan reformed Qi to centralize its power structure. The state consisted of 15 townships with the duke and two senior ministers each in charge of five; military functions were

10、also united with civil ones. These and related reforms provided the state, already powerful from control of trade crossroads, with a greater ability to mobilize resources than the more loosely organized states. By 667 BC, Qi had clearly shown its economic and military predominance, and Duke Huan ass

11、embled the leaders of Lu, Song, Chen, and Zheng, who elected him as their leader. Soon after, King Hui of Zhouconferred the title of b (hegemon), giving Duke Huan royal authority in military ventures. An important basis for justifying Qis dominance over the other states was presented in the slogan s

12、upporting the king, and expelling the barbarians (尊王攘夷 zun wang rang yi); the role of subsequent hegemons would also be framed in this way, as the primary defender and supporter of nominal Zhou authority and the existing order. Using this authority, Duke Huan intervened in a power struggle in Lu; pr

13、otected Yan from encroaching Western Rong nomads (664 BC); drove off Northern Di nomads after theyd invaded Wey (660 BC) and Xing (659 BC), providing the people with provisions and protective garrison units; and led an alliance of eight states to conquer Cai and thereby block the northward expansion

14、 of Chu (656 BC). At his death in 643 BC, five of Duke Huans sons contended for the throne, badly weakening the state so that it was no longer regarded as the hegemon. For nearly ten years, no ruler held the title. Hegemony of Song (643637 BC)Duke Xiang of Song attempted to claim the hegemony in the

15、 wake of Qis decline, perhaps driven by a desire to restore the Shang Dynasty from which Song had descended. He hosted peace confences in the same style as Qi had done, and conducted aggessive military campaigns against his rivals. Duke Xiang however met his end when, against the advice of his staff

16、, he attacked the much larger state of Chu. The Song forces were defeated at the battle of Hong in 638 BC, and the duke himself died in the following year from an injury sustained in the battle. After Xiangs death his successors adopted a more modest foreign policy, better suited to the countrys sma

17、ll size. As Duke Xiang was never officially recognized as hegemon by the King of Zhou, not all sources list him as one of the Five Hegemons.Hegemony of Jin (636628 BC)When Duke Wen of Jin came to power in 636 BC, he capitalized on the reforms of his father, Duke Xian (r. 676651 BC), who had centrali

18、zed the state, killed off relatives who might threaten his authority, conquered sixteen smaller states, and even absorbed some Rong and Di peoples to make Jin much more powerful than it had been previously. When he assisted King Xiang in a succession struggle in 635 BC, Xiang awarded Jin with strate

19、gically valuable territory near Chengzhou.Duke Wen of Jin then used his growing power to coordinate a military response with Qi, Qin, and Song against Chu, which had begun encroaching northward after the death of Duke Hun of Qi. With a decisive Chu loss at the Battle of Chengpu (632 BC), Duke Wens l

20、oyalty to the Zhou king was rewarded at an interstate conference when King Xang awarded him the title of b. After the death of Duke Wen in 628 BC, a growing tension manifested in interstate violence that turned smaller states, particularly those at the border between Jin and Chu, into sites of const

21、ant warfare; Qi and Qin also engaged in numerous interstate skirmishes with Jin or its allies to boost their own power.24Hegemony of Qin (628621 BC)Duke Mu of Qin had ascended the throne in 659 BC and forged an alliance with Jin by marrying his daughter to Duke Wen. In 624 BC, he established hegemon

22、y over the western Rong barbarians and became the most powerful lord of the time. However he did not chair any alliance with other states nor was he officially recognized as hegemon by the king. Therefore, not all sources accept him as one of the Five Hegemons.Hegemony of Chu (613591 BC)King Zhuang

23、of Chu expanded the borders of Chu well north of the Yangtze River, threatening the Central States in modern Henan. At one point the Chu forces advanced to just outside the royal capital of Zhou, upon which King Zhuang sent a messenger to ask how heavy and bulky the Nine Cauldrons were; implying he

24、might soon arrange to have them moved to his own capital. In the end the Zhou capital was spared, and Chu shifted focus to harassing the nearby state of Zheng. The once-hegemon state of Jin intervened to rescue Zheng from the Chu invaders but were resolutely defeated, which marks the ascension of Ch

25、u as the dominant state of the time. Despite his de facto hegemony, King Zhuangs self-proclaimed title of king was never recognized by the Zhou states. In the Spring and Autumn Annals he is defiantly referred to by the Chu rulers original title viscount (the second-lowest noble rank), even at a time

26、 when he dominated most of south China. Later historians however always include him as one of the Five Hegemons.4. Hundred Schools of ThoughtThe Hundred Schools of Thought (simplified Chinese: 诸子百家; WadeGiles: chu-tzu pai-chia; literally: all philosophers hundred schools) were philosophers and schoo

27、ls that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BC, during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period of ancient China. An era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China, it was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, but it was also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philos

28、ophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. This phenomenon has been called the Contention of a Hundred Schools of Thought (百家爭鳴/百家争鸣; pai-chia cheng-ming; hundred schools contend). The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoun

29、dly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries and the East Asian diaspora around the world. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of g

30、overnment, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the imperial Qin Dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. A traditional source for this period is the Shiji, or Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian. The autobiographical section of the Shiji, the Taishigong Zixu (太史公自序), r

31、efers to the schools of thought described below.ConfucianismConfucianism (儒家; Rji; Ju-chia; School of scholars) is the body of thought that arguably had the most enduring effects on Chinese life. Its written legacy lies in the Confucian Classics, which later became the foundation of traditional soci

32、ety. Confucius (551479 BC), or Kongzi (Master Kong), looked back to the early days of the Zhou dynasty for an ideal socio-political order. He believed that the only effective system of government necessitated prescribed relationships for each individual: Let the ruler be a ruler and the subject a subject. Furthermore, he contended that a king must be virtuous in order to rule state properly. To Confucius, the functions of government and social stratification were facts of life to be sustained by ethical values; thus his ideal human was