哲学.docx

哲学.docx

《哲学.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《哲学.docx（27页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

哲学

ARISTOTLE（Translatedby1.A.K.ThomsonandHughTredennick）

NicomacheanEthics

BOOKI

Tounderstandwhatmoralgoodnessiswemuststudythesoulojman

...Sincehappinessisanactivityofthesoulinaccordancewithperfectvirtue,

wemustexaminethenatureofvirtue;forperhapsinthiswayweshallbebetter

abletoformaviewabouthappinesstoo.Besides,thetruestatesmanisthought

ofasamanwhohastakenspecialpainstostudythissubject;forhewantsto

makehisfellow-citizensgoodandlaw-abidingpeople（wehaveanexampleof

thisinthelaw-giversofCreteandSparta,andanyotherswhohaveshownsimi-

larqualities）.Andifthisinvestigationisapartofpoliticalscience,clearlyour

inquirywillbeinkeepingwiththeplanthatweadoptedattheoutset.

Thegoodnessthatwehavetoconsiderishumangoodness,obviously;forit

wasthegoodJormanorhappinessformanthatwesetouttodiscover.Butby

humangoodnessismeantgoodnessnotofthebodybutofthesoul,andhappinessalsowedefineasanactivityofthesou!

.Thisbeingso,itisevidentthatthe

statesmanoughttohavesomeacquaintancewithpsychology,justas,adoctor

whointendstotreattheeyemusthaveaknowledgeofthebodyasawhole.

Indeedthestatesman'sneedisgreaterthanthedoctor's,inasmuchaspoliticsis

abetterandmorehonourablesciencethanmedicine.Butthebestkindofdoc-

torstakeagooddealoftroubletoacquireaknowledgeofthebody;sothe

statesmantoomuststudythesoul,butwithaviewtopolitics,andonlysofaras

issufficientforthequestionsthatweareinvestigating;fortoexploreitsnature

ingreaterdetailwouldpresumablybetoolaboriousforourpresentpurpose.

Theseveralfacultiesojthesouldistinguished

Someaspectsofpsychologyareadequatelytreatedindiscourseselsewhere,and

weshouldmakeuseoftheresults:

e.g.thatthesoulispartrationalandpartirrational（whethertheseareseparatelikethepartsofthebodyoranythingelsethat

isphysicallydivisible,orwhetherliketheconvexandconcaveaspectsofthe

circumferenceofacircletheyaredistinguishableastwoonlyindefinitionand

281bid.424.

430SectionSevenwhatOughtWeToDo?

thought,andarebynatureinseparable,makesnodifferenceforourpresent

purpose）.Oftheirrationalsoulonepartseemstobecommon,viz.thevegetative:

Imeanthecauseofnutritionandgrowth;becauseonecanassumesuchafaculty

ofsoulineverythingthatreceivesnourishment,eveninembryos;andthissame

facultytoointhefullydevelopedcreature,becausethisismorereasonablethan

tosupposethatthelatterhasadifferentone.Thustheexcellenceofthisfacultyis

evidentlycommonandnotconfinedtoman;becausethispartorfacultyseemsto

bemostactiveinsleep,whenthegoodandthebadareleasteasytodistinguish

（hencethesaying"forhalftheirlivesthehappyarenodifferentfromthe

wretched"）.Thisisanaturalconsequence,becausesleepisasuspensionofthat

functionofthesoulbywhichitisdistinguishedasgoodandbad-exceptthatto

acertainlimitedextentsomeofthestimulireachthesoul;thisiswhatmakesthe

dreamsofdecentpeoplebetterthanthoseoftheordinaryman.Butenoughof

thissubject;wemaydismissthenutritivesoul,becauseofitsverynatureithasno

partinhumangoodness.

Butthereseemstobeanotherelementofthesoulwhich,whileirrational,is

inasensereceptiveofreason.Takethetypesofmanwhichwecallcontinent

andincontinent.Theyhaveaprinciple-arationalelementintheirsouls-

whichwecommend,becauseiturgesthemintherightdirectionandencouragesthemtotakethebestcourse;butthereisalsoobservableinthemanother

element,bynatureirrational,whichstrugglesandstrainsagainsttherational.

Justasinthecaseofthebodyparalysedlimbs,whenthesubjectchoosesto

movethemtotheright,swingawayinthecontrarydirectiontotheleft,so

exactlythesamehappensinthecaseofthesoul;fortheimpulsesoftheincontinenttaketheminthecontrarydirection."Butinbodiesweseewhatswings

away,whereasinthecaseofthesoulwedonot."Probablyweshouldbelieve

neverthelessthatthesoultoocontainsanirrationalelementwhichopposesand

runscountertoreason-inwhatsenseitisaseparateelementdoesnotmatter

atall.Butthistoo,aswesaidseemstobereceptiveofreason;atanyrateinthe

continentmanitisobedienttoreason,andispresumablystillmoreamenable

inthetemperateandinthebraveman,becauseinthemitisincompletehar-

monywiththerationalprinciple.

Evidently,then,theirrationalpartofthesoulalsoconsistsoftwoparts.The

vegetativehasnoassociationatallwithreason,butthedesiderativeandgener-

allyappetitivepartdoesinawayparticipateinreason,inthesensethatitis

submissiveandobedienttoit（thisisthesenseoflogonecheininwhichwespeak

of"takingaccount"ofone'sfatherorfriends,notthatinwhichwespeakof

"havinganaccount"ofmathematicalpropositions）.Thattheirrationalpartis

insomewaypersuadedbyreasonisindicatedbyouruseofadmonition,andof

reproofandencouragementofallkinds.If,however,oneshouldspeakofthe

appetitivepartofthesoulasrationaltoo,itwillbetherationalpartthatis

dividedintwo:

onerationalinthepropersenseofthewordandinitself,the

otherinthesensethatachildpaysattentiontoitsfather.

Virtue,too,isdividedintoclassesinaccordancewiththisdifferentiationof

thesoul.Somevirtuesarecalledintellectualandothersmoral;Wisdomand

AristotleNicomacheanEthics431

UnderstandingandPrudenceareintellectual,LiberalityandTemperanceare

moralvirtues.Whenwearespeakingofaman'scharacterwedonotdescribe

himaswiseorunderstanding,butaspatientortemperate.Wedo,however,

praiseawisemanonthegroundofhisstateofmind;andthosestatesthatare

praiseworthywecallvirtues.

BOOKII

Moralvirtues,likecrafts,areacquiredbypracticeandhabituation

Virtue,then,isoftwokinds,intellectualandmoral.Intellectualvirtueowes

bothitsinceptionanditsgrowthchieflytoinstruction,andforthisveryreason

needstimeandexperience.Moralgoodness,ontheotherhand,istheresultof

habit,fromwhichithasactuallygotitsname,beingaslightmodificationofthe

wordethos.Thisfactmakesitobviousthatnoneofthemoralvirtuesisengenderedinusbynature,sincenothingthatiswhatitisbynaturecanbemadeto

behavedifferentlybyhabituation.Forinstance,astone,whichhasanatural

tendencydownwards,cannotbehabituatedtorise,howeveroftenyoutryto

trainitbythrowingitintotheair;norcanyoutrainfiretoburndownwards;nor

cananythingelsethathasanyothernaturaltendencybetrainedtodepartfrom

it.Themoralvirtues,then,areengenderedinusneitherbynorcontraryto

nature;weareconstitutedbynaturetoreceivethem,buttheirfulldevelopment

inusisduetohabit.

Again,ofallthosefacultieswithwhichnatureendowsuswefirstacquirethe

potentialities,andonlylatereffecttheiractualization.（Thisisevidentinthe

caseofthesenses.Itwasnotfromrepeatedactsofseeingorhearingthatwe

acquiredthesensesbuttheotherwayround:

wehadthesesensesbeforewe

usedthem;wedidnotacquirethemastheresultofusingthem.）Butthevirtues

wedoacquirebyfirstexercisingthem,justashappensinthearts.Anythingthat

wehavetolearntodowelearnbytheactualdoingofit:

peoplebecome

buildersbybuildingandinstrumentalistsbyplayinginstruments.Similarlywe

becomejustbyperformingjustacts,temperatebyperformingtemperateones,

bravebyperformingbraveones.Thisviewissupportedbywhathappensincity-

states.Legislatorsmaketheircitizensgoodbyhabituation;thisistheintention

ofeverylegislator,andthosewhodonotcarryitoutfailoftheirobject.Thisis

whatmakesthedifferencebetweenagoodconstitutionandabadone.

Again,thecausesormeansthatbringaboutanyformofexcellencearethe

sameasthosethatdestroyit,andsimilarlywithart;foritisasaresultofplaying

theharpthatpeoplebecomegoodandbadharpists.Thesameprinciple

appliestobuildersandallothercraftsmen.Menwillbecomegoodbuildersasa

resultofbuildingwell,andbadonesasaresultofbuildingbadly.Otherwise

therewouldbenoneedofanyonetoteachthem:

theywouldallbeborneither

goodorbad.Nowthisholdsgoodalsoofthevirtues.Itisthewaythatwebehave

inourdealingswithotherpeoplethatmakesusjustorunjust,andthewaythat

432SectionSevenWhatOughtWeToDo?

webehaveinthefaceofdanger,accustomingourselvestobetimidorconfi-

dent,thatmakesusbraveorcowardly.Similarlywithsituationsinvolvingdesires

andangryfeelings:

somepeoplebecometemperateandpatientfromonekind

ofconductinsuchsituations,otherslicentiousandcholericfromanother.Ina

word,then,likeactivitiesproducelikedispositions.Hencewemustgiveour

activitiesacertainquality,becauseitistheircharacteristicsthatdeterminethe

resultingdispositions.Soitisamatterofnolittleimportancewhatsortofhabits

weformfromtheearliestage-itmakesavastdifference,orratherallthe

differenceintheworld.

Inapracticalscience,somuchdependsonparticularcircumstancesthatonlygeneralrulescanbegiven

Sincethebranchofphilosophyonwhichweareatpresentengagedisnot,like

theothers,theoreticalinitsaim-beca