新世纪大学英语教材第四册课文610.docx

新世纪大学英语教材第四册课文610.docx

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新世纪大学英语教材第四册课文610

UnitSix

ReadingSelectionOne:

Mind/BodyProgramming

　　Everytimeyoumissyourexitonthehighwaybecauseyouaredaydreaming,then"wakeup"todiscoveryourselfmilesfartherdowntheroad,youaredemonstratingthepoweroftheunconsciousmind.Oncesomethingislearned,wedon'thavetothinkaboutitconsciously.Thetasksimplyrepeatsitselfassoonasweinitiatetheprogram—inthiscase,byputtingthekeyintheignition.Therestofdrivingissecondnaturebecauseournervoussystemhasbeenconditioned—orimprinted—withthedrivingpattern.

　　Becauseofourconditioning,weareallcreaturesofhabit.Mostpeoplegetanxiousbeforetakinganexampartlybecausetheyhavebecomehabituatedtofeelinganxiousatexamtime,whetherornotthesituationathandisactuallythreatening.Oncethreatenedbyanexam,aneuralconnectionisestablished.Thenexttimeanexamcomesup,theprobabilityisthatwe'llreactivatethatsameconditionedcircuit.*T

　　Physiologicalconditioningisakindofrapidlearningthatevolvedtohelpusmastercause-and-effectsituationsthatmightdeterminesurvival.WeallarefamiliarwithPavlov'sfamousexperiment.Adogisgivenmeatpowder,whichnaturallymakeshimsalivate.Abellisthenrungeverytimethemeatpowderispresented.Afteratimethedogsalivatesmerelyatthesoundofthebell.Weseethesamemechanismoperatinginourselveswhenwe'reworkingawaycontentedly,thenglanceupattheclock,noticeit'slunchtime,andsuddenlybecomehungry.

　　Themind'spowertoaffectthebodythroughconditioningbecamecrystalcleartomewhenIwassixorsevenyearsold.MyUncleDick,aconfirmedcheesehater,waseatingSundaydinnerwithus.Fordesserttherewasacheesecakecamouflagedwithripestrawberries.Itwassogoodthatheatetwopieces.AboutanhourlatermymotherexpressedhersurpriseatUncleDick'sdelightinthedessert,sincesheknewhowmuchhehatedcheese.Atthesoundofthewordcheese,UncleDickturnedpale,begantogag,andranforthebathroom.Evenasachilditwasobvioustomethattheproblemwasnotthecheeseitself,butsomementalconditioningaboutcheesethatproducedsuchaviolentreaction.

　　Manypeoplewhoreceivechemotherapyforcancergetsicktotheirstomachsfromthemedication.Soon,throughconditioningsimilartoUncleDick's,theybegintogetsickbeforetheyactuallyreceivethedrugs.Somepeoplebegintogetnauseousthenightbeforetreatment.Othersmaygetnauseouscomingtothehospitalorevenuponseeingtheirdoctorornurse.Theyhaveinvoluntarilylearnedtogetsickasaconditionedresponsetothethoughts,sights,andsmellsofthechemotherapysituation.

　　Whatwe'velearnedfromSovietstudiesfollowingPavlov'smodelisthattheimmunesystemitselfcanbeconditioned.InthiscountryDr.RobertAderandDr.NicholasCohenattheUniversityofRochesterinjectedratswithanimmunosuppressantdrugandatthesametimeaddedanewtaste—saccharin—totheanimals'drinkingwater.ThesaccharinactedlikePavlov'sbell.Afterawhiletheratsweresuppressingtheirimmunityatthetasteofsaccharinalone.

　　Dr.G.RichardSmithandSandraMcDanieldidafascinatingstudyofthesuppressionofimmunereactionsinhumans.Onceamonthforfivemonths,volunteerswhohadreactedpositivelyinatuberculinskintestcameintothesameroomwiththesamearrangementoffurnitureandthesamenurse.Eachtimetheysawaredandgreenvialonthedesk,andeachtimethecontentsoftheredvial—tuberculin—wereinjectedintothesamearm,andthecontentsofthegreenvial—asaltsolution—wereinjectedintotheother.

　　Monthaftermonththesameprocedurewasfollowed,andmonthaftermonththevolunteershadthesamereactiontothetuberculin—aredswollenpatchonthesamearm.Therewasneveranyreactiontotheinjectionofthesaltsolutionintheotherarm.

　　Onthesixthtrialthecontentsofthevialswereswitchedwithoutthevolunteers'knowledge.Andthistimethevolunteershadalmostnoreactiontothetuberculin.Theirexpectationthatnothingeverhappenedaftertheinjectionfromthegreenvialapparentlywasenoughtoinhibittheimmunesystem'spowerfulinflammatoryresponsetotuberculin.

　　Conditioningisapowerfulbridgebetweenmindandbody….Thereasonisthatthebodycannottellthedifferencebetweeneventsthatareactuallythreatstosurvivalandeventsthatarepresentinthoughtalone.Themindspinsoutendlessfantasiesofpossibledisasterspastandfuture.*ThistendencytoescalateasituationintoitsworstpossibleconclusioniswhatIcallawfulizing,anditcanbeakeyfactorintippingthebalancetowardillnessorhealth.*Perhapsyou'rehungupintraffic,suretobelateforanimportant9A.M.meeting.Orit'smidnightandyourchildisstillout,orthedoctortellsyoushewantstorepeatatest,orsooninendlessvariation.Thefloodof"whatifs"and"ifonlys"engagesthevarioushumanemotions,whichcaninfluencevirtuallyallbodilyfunctions.*

　　Thewayourmindswork—thedegreetowhichweawfulize—alsodependsonpreviousconditioning.Theresponsesofourparentsandotherinfluentialrolemodelsshapeourownreactionstolife.Awarenessofourconditioningisthefirststeptowardunlearningattitudesthathaveoutlivedtheirusefulness.*Suchawarenessopensourabilitytorespondtowhatishappeningnowratherthanreactionoutofaconditionedhistorythatmaybearchaic.*

ReadingSelectionTwo:

DoAnimalsThink?

ByMichaelC.Mix,PaulFarber&KeithI.King

　　Scientistshaveinvestigatedthehumanorganismfromamechanisticviewpointforoveracentury.Theirunderlyingassumptionhasbeenthathumanscouldbeviewedaselegantchemicalmachinesthatfollowpredictablenaturallaws.*Thisapproachhashadstunningsuccess.Weknowagreatdealaboutthehumanbody,wecandesigndrugstoalleviatevariousailments,andwecancounternumerousconditionsthatcausesufferingordeath.Althoughsciencecantellusagreatdealaboutourphysicalconditionbytreatingthehumanbodyasamachine,noonedoubtsthathumans,unlikemachines,areconsciouscreatures.Ourownconsciousnessisevident.Whataboutanimals?

　　Tothoseofuswhohavepets,suchasdogsorcats,itisdifficulttothinkofthemasmachineswithoutself-awareness—asentitiesmoreakintoourwashingmachines,personalcomputers,andblow-dryersthantoourfamilymembersandfriends.*Canitbethatourcleverdog,Cassie,that"comforts"uswhenwearedown,leapswith"joy"whenwereturnfromwork,andhas"outsmarted"theneighbor'sdogthatusedto"steal"herfood,issimplyageneticallyprogrammedautomaton?

OrthatZiZi,ourneighbor'scat,thatwouldseemingly"favor"starvationtodrycatfood,is,inherbehavior,justreflectinganidiosyncraticprogramratherthanexpressingaconsciouspreference?

　　UntilshortlyafterWorldWarI,itseemedobvioustoscientiststhatanimalshadfeelingsandthattheycouldthink.CharlesDarwinbelievedthatfemalebirdsshowedaestheticpreferencesintheirchoiceofmatesandthatsexualselectionwasstronglyinfluencedbyit.

　　Manywritingsdoneinthelatenineteenthcenturyontheanimalmind,however,wereuncriticalandhighlyanthropomorphic.*Humandesires,fears,andattitudeswereattributedtoanimals,andnumerousstorieswereacceptedwithoutanycarefulattemptsatverification.Itisnotsurprising,then,thatwhenwereadthisliteraturetoday,muchofitseemscomical.

　　Psychologistsinthe1920sreactedstronglytothisuncriticalliteratureandtookthepositionthatitwasnotpossibletoverifywhetherornotanimalscouldthink.Theyconcludedthatthequestionofanimals'thinkingwasnotameaningfultopicforsciencebecauseitcouldnotbetestedexperimentally.Instead,psychologistsfocusedontheobservablebehaviorofanimals.Theyarguedthatinestablishingascientificpsychology,itwasirrelevantwhetheranimalsthought.Theyintendedtoestablishscientificlawsabouthowanimalslearnandbehavethatcouldbeverifiedbyotherscientists.TopsychologistslikeJamesWatsonorB.F.Skinner,theprivatemindoftheanimal,ifitexisted,wasclosedtohumaninvestigation.

　　Ethologistswhostudiedanimalbehavior,forthemostpart,wereequallydismissiveaboutprobingtheinnerworldofanimals.Afewworkerswereinterestedinhowtheworldmight"look"toanimals,whichhavedifferentsenseorgansthanhumans,buttheprimarythrustofethologywasindocumentingrepeatablepatternsofbehaviorandincomparingthesepatterns,withtheobjectofestablishingevolutionaryconnections.*T

　　Modernanimalbehaviordrawsonknowledgederivedfrompsychology,ethology,genetics,ecology,andotherfieldsofscience.Untilrecently,alloftheseareasofresearchhadbeenfarremovedfromdiscussionsofanimalthoughtoranimalawareness.

　　Awell-knowninvestigatorofanimalbehavior,DonaldGriffinofRockefellerUniversity,arguesthatneglectinganimalawarenessandthinkingisnotonlyanoverreactiontothena?

veacceptanceofundocumentedanimalstoriesbutalsoablindspotthatretardsadvancesinthescientificunderstandingofanimalbehavior.*Griffinbelievesthatmentalexperiencesinanimalscouldhaveanadaptivevalue—thebetterananimalunderstandsitsenvironment,thebetteritcanadjustitsbehaviortosurviveandreproduceinit.Heisalsointerestedinanimalcommunication,whichhefeelscansometimesbeusedtoconveyinformationaboutobjectsoreventsthataredistantintimeorspace.Thisformofinformationmaysuggestawareness.

　　Insupportofhisideas,Griffincitesvariousbehaviorsthatseemtoinvolveaccurateevaluationincomplexenvironments.Forexample,herefersto