英美合同法讲义.docx
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英美合同法讲义
《ABriefIntroductionToTheAnglo-AmericanLawofContract》
讲义
CHAPTER1INTRODUCTIONTOENGLISHANDAMERICANCONTRACTLAW
第一章导论
Manystudentswronglyimaginethatthelawofcontractisdifficultinthatitwilldealwithcomplicatedcommercialsituations.Theyalsothinkofcontractsascomplicatedwrittendocumentsonlyenteredintoonrareoccasionssuchasacceptingtheofferofajob,rentingorbuyingahouse,orengaginginamajorbusinesstransaction.
Infact,mostofusenterintocontractseverydayandthevastmajorityofthemarelesscomplicated.Buyingabusortrainticket,acupofcoffeeorabookareallexampleofcontractsandwehardlyeverbothertorecordtheseaffairsinwriting,negotiatethemindetail.
Althoughitisusuallyfairlyeasytorecognizeacontractonceformed,itisbynomeanssuchaneasytasktodescribeingeneraltermswhatacontractis.Itisusually,perhapsuniversally,saidthatacontractisalegallyenforceableagreementandthatitisformedbytheprocessof“OfferandAcceptance.”Itisalsosaidthattheagreementmustbesupportedby“consideration”foritisthepresenceofconsiderationthatmakestheagreementenforceable.
Thecontractlawcoursetaughtinthissemesterusuallydealwiththe“generalprinciplesofcontract”.Wewillnotconcernwiththosemoreadvancefieldssuchascontractsofemployment,ofthesaleofgoodsbetweenbusinessandtoconsumers,ofinternationalsales,ofthedisposalorretentionofintellectualpropertyrights,ofshipping,ofinsurance,andofconstructiondeals.
[AimsandRequirements]
ThischapterintroducessomebasictheoryinCommonLawsystemoncontractlaw.ThesectionAbeginsoursurveywiththedefinitionofcontract,whichintroducesanumberofthemesincludingthebasisofcontractandtheconditionsforenforcementofpromises.SectionBpresentsanoverviewofsometheoreticalissuesandprovidessomeverybasicinformationthatoftenemergesinclassonlyincidentallyandmaythereforebemissedbysomestudents.SectionCconcentratesonthedevelopmentofAnglo-Americancontractlawinthepastcentury.Itisusefulforthestudenttounderstandnewcharacteristicsofmoderncontractlaw.
[TimeAllocation]4hour
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SECTIONA.THEMEANINGOF“CONTRACT”ANDBASISOFCONTRACT
第一节合同的定义和合同基础
I.MeaningOfContract
Purposeanddemand
Inthiscertainpartofthechapterwemustcoverthefollowingpurposeanddemands:
thestudentsshouldmasterthedefinitionofContract.Theywillbefamiliarwiththesourcesofcontractlaw.TheunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenEnglandandTheUSAisalsoveryimportant.
Maincontent
I.TheMeaningof“Contract”
Acontractisapromise,orsetofpromise,forbreachofwhichthelawgivesaremedy,ortheperformanceofwhichthelawinsomewayrecognizesasaduty.(RestatementoftheLaw,Second,Contracts,Section1.)
Acontractisdefinedasanexchangerelationshipcreatedbyoralorwrittenagreementbetweentwoormorepersons,containingatleastonepromise,andrecognizedinlawasenforceable.
Brieflyspeaking,a“contract”isanagreement(apromiseorasetofpromise)thatthelawwillenforce.
Acontractisalegallybindingagreementbetweentwoormorepartiesorasetoflegalbindingpromisesmadebyonepartyormore.(SeeG.C.Lindsay,Contract,(3rd,1992)at6~7.)
Althoughthisdefinitionwillnotlikelysatisfyeveryone,itdoesreflecttheessentialelementsthateveryoneseemstoaccept:
II.Sotherearefiveessentialelementsinacontract:
1.Anoralorwrittenagreement
Probably,themostimportantattributeofcontractisthatisavoluntary,consensualrelationship.Acontractiscreatedonlybecausetheparties,actingwithfreewillandintenttobebound,reachagreementontheessentialtermsoftheirrelationship.Itistheelementofagreementthatdistinguishescontractualobligationfrommanyotherkindsoflegalduty,suchastheobligationtocompensatefornegligentinjuryortopaytaxesthatarisebyoperationoflawfromsomeactorevent,withouttheneedforassent.
Althoughagreementbetweenthepartiesisessentialtothecreationofcontract,thequestionofwhatconstituteslegallysufficientagreementcanbedifficult;thequestionisdiscussedindetaillater.Forthepresent,itissufficienttopointoutthatthelawdoesnotdemandaninquiryintothemindsofthepartiestodecidewhethertheyhadformedanactualintenttocontract.Suchaninvestigationintotheactualthoughtsandunderstandingofaparty(calledsubjectiveintent)wouldnotadequatelyprotecttheotherparty’sreasonablerelianceonapparentintent,asportrayedbywordsandconduct.Also,becausetheonlymeansofestablishingthetruestateofmindofapersonisthetestimonyofthatperson,evidenceoftrueintentislikelytobeunreliableandcoloredbyself-interest.Therefore,indecidingwhetherapersonagreedtoacontract,thelawgaugesintentobjectively.Thatis,itevaluatestheperson’sovertacts—wordsandconduct—todecidewhethertheyreasonablysignifiedanintenttoenterthetransaction.
Theconceptofvolitionmustalsobeapproachedwithcaution.Althoughacontractisavoluntaryrelationship,thisdoesnotmeanthatapartymustbecompletelyfreeofallpressureandmustexerciseunfetteredfreewill.Itisinevitableandtolerablethatapartysufferssomedegreeofcompulsionfrompersonalcircumstances,desires,andneeds,andfromexternalmarketforces.However,wherethispressurebecomestoointenseandistakenadvantageofbytheotherparty,itunderminesvolitionandnegatestheapparentaccent.
Thedefinitionalsoindicatesthatagreementmaybeoralorwritten.Underalegalrulecalledthestatuteoffrauds,certainspecifiedcontractsmustberecordedinwritingandsignedtobeenforceable.However,unlessacontractfallswithinthestatuteoffrauds,itisfullybindinginoralform.Itiscommonforbothlaypersonsandlawyerstousetheword“contract”torefertothedocumentsettingoutthetermsoftheagreementthatissignedbytheparties.Strictlyspeaking,thedocumentisnotthecontract,butmerelythememorandumorrecordofthecontract.Thecontractisthelegalrelationshipthatarisesfromtheagreementthatmayormaynotberecordedinawrittenmemorial.
2.Theinvolvementoftwoormorepersons
Aswithtangos,ittakestwotocontract.Thispropositionseemssoself-evidentthatitishardlyworthmentioning.Unlikethetango,however,acontractisnotconfinedtotwoparticipants.Therecanbeasmanypartiestoacontractastheneedsofthetransactiondictate.Infact,multipartycontractsarecommon.
3.Anexchangerelationship
Asmentionedearlier,acontractisarelationship.Byenteringintotheagreement,thepartiesbindthemselvestoeachotherforthecommonpurposeofthecontract.Somecontractualrelationshipslastonlyashorttimeandrequireminimalinteraction.Forexample,acontractforahaircutinvolvesafairlyquickperformancebythehairdresser,followedbythefulfillmentofthecustomer’spaymentobligation.Othercontractualrelationships,suchasleasesorlong-termemploymentorsupplycontracts,couldspanmanyyearsandrequireconstantdealingsbetweentheparties,regulatedbydetailedprovisionsintheagreement.
Theessentialpurposeofthecontractrelationshipisexchange.Itliesattheheartofcontract.Contractandtradegohandinhand:
becausetradingisavitalandindispensablefacetofoursociety,contractlawexiststofacilitateit.
Inotherwords,theveryessenceofcontractisthereciprocalrelationshipinwhicheachpartygivesupsomethingtogetsomething.These“somethings”areasvariedasonecouldimagine:
agoatherdmaypromisetotradeagoattoamillerforasackofflour;aninventormaytradetherightstoherideaforapromisebyamanufacturertodeveloptheideaformutualprofit;afondunclemaypromisehisnephewmoneyinexchangeforanundertakingnottodrink,smoke,andgamble.Thesesituationsvarygreatly.Someinvolvetangiblethings,othersintangiblerights.Someofthepromiseshaveeconomicvalue,othersdonot.Yettheirbasicformatisthesame-abargainhasbeenreachedleadingtoareciprocalexchangeforthebetterment(realorperceived)ofbothparties.
4.Atleastonepromise
Asalreadystressed,contractisarelationship.Iftwopeoplechatforafewminutesatareceptionandthenpartwithnointentionofeverseeingeachotheragain.Theirencounterwouldnotlikelybedescribedasarelationship.Soasforcontract,instantaneousexchanges,eventhoughconsensual,donotconstitutecontracts.Foracontracttoexist,theremustbeapromise-thatis,somecommitmentforthefuture,someassumptionsofliabilitylastingbeyondtheinstantofagreement.Thisisbecauseisneitherpartymakesacommitment,thereisnothingtoenforceandnoneedforthelawofcontractstobeconcernedwiththeexchange.
III.Afewillustrations
Theconceptofpromiseorcommitmentneedsexplanationandrefinement.Apromiseisanundertakingtoactorrefrainfromactinginaspecifiedwayatsomefuturetime.Thispromisemaybemadeinclearandexpresswords,oritcouldbeimplied–thatis,inferredfromconductorfromthecircumstancesofthetransaction.Furthermore,asthedefinitionindicates,onlyonepromiseneedstobemadeforacontracttocomeintoexistence.
Whereattheinstantofcontracting,promisesremainoutstandingonbothsides,thecontractiscalledbilateral.Where,attheinstantofcontracting,onepartyhasfullyperformedandallthatremains