6.Modernlinguisticsandthetraditionalgrammar
ModernLinguistics:
descriptive,叙述性的Speech,Universalframework
TraditionalGrammar：
Prescriptive规范性的，Writing，Latin-basedframework
7.Designfeatures:
Arbitrariness/Productivity/Displacement/Culturaltransmission
1.whatislanguage?
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbols任意的有声信号usedforhumancommunication.
CharlesF.HocketthaswrittenabookcalledaCourseInModernLinguistics
2.Designfeaturesoflanguage结构特点
Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.
Productivity（创造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.
Duality（结构二重性）Lowerlevel:
astructureofmeaninglesssounds,Higherlevel:
groupedandregroupedsoundswithmeaning
Displacement（不受时空限制的特征）Languagescanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.
Culturaltransmission（文化传递）Thedetailedofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.
8.Phonetics:
Articulataryphonetics/auditoryphonetics/acousticphonetics
Thestudyofsoundsisdividedinto3areas:
（1）Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学
（2）Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学
（3）Acousticphonetics声学语言学
9.①Pharyngealcavity:
thethroat咽腔
②Oralcavity:
themouth口腔
③Nasalcavity:
thenose鼻腔
10.IPA（InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标）
[辨InternationalPhoneticAssociation国际语音协会]
ThefirstversionoftheIPAwaspublishedin1888.TheIPAhasbeenrevisedandcorrectedseveraltimesandthepresentsystemofIPAderivesmainlyfromonedevelopedinthe1920s,bytheBritishphoneticianDanielJones（琼斯）andhiscolleaguesatuniversityofLondon.
11.①Placeofarticulation（发音部位）
[弱弱的补充一下]发音部位包括：
bilabial双唇音.labiodental唇齿音.dental齿间音.alveolar齿龈音.palatal硬腭音.velar软腭音.glottal声门音.Postalveolar后齿龈音.retroflex卷舌音.uvular小舌音.pharyngeal咽音。
②Mannerofarticulation（发音方法）
包括：
stop爆破音.Fricative摩擦音.Affricates破擦音.Lateral边音.（median）approximant中通音.
12.Phonology（音系学）andPhonetics（语音学）
Phoneticsstudiedhowspeechsoundsaremade,transmittedandreceived.
Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundsystemoflanguages.
13.Phone:
isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.（P23）
音素：
是从音色的角度划分出来的最小的语音单位。
在语音学与音韵学中，音素一词所指的是说话时所发出的声音。
音素是具体存在的物理现象。
Phone:
doesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Somedo,somedon’t.forexample,[s]and[t]do,as[si:
m]and[ti:
m]aretwowordswithtotallydifferentmeanings,and[th]and[t]don’t,as[stop]and[sthop]meanthesametoaspeakerofEnglish.
Phoneme:
isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.
音位：
在某一特殊语种中的有限的发音类别中的一个，它的改变可以使该语言中的词汇与其他词汇区别开。
音位应该与人体的发音严格的区分开，因为音位是指一个有规律的有限的发音系统而人体的发音则是无限的。
音位是音位学的单位，而人体发音则是从医学或物理学角度考虑的声音效果。
Eg：
/p/peak→[ph]→withastrongpuffofairsteam→aspirated
/p/speak→[p]→thepuffofairwithheld→unaspirated
So/p/isaphonemeintheEnglishsoundsystem,anditcanberealizeddifferentlyasaspiratedorunaspiratedindifferentcontext.
Conventionallyphonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets,andphonemesinslashes,e.g./p/,/l/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/m/…
Allophones:
Differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.
Forexample,thephonemeis/l/canberealizedasdark[I],clear[l],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme/l/.
Similarsoundsrelatedintwoways:
1）.Phonemiccontrast:
Tworelateddistinctivephonemes.
/p/-[pit],[roup]
/b/-[bit],[roub]
2）.Complementarydistribution（互补分布）:
Allophonesofthesamephonemeoccurringindifferentphoneticenvironment,whichdonotdistinguishmeaning.
Clear/l/-beforeavowel:
look,leap
Dark/l/-betweenavowelandaconsonants,orattheendofaword:
till,nail,feel
Minimalpair:
（最小对立体）Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.
Minimalpair:
whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.
Pill-bill,dill-gill,pill-till,till-kill,kill-dill,dill-gill
Beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat
音位的确定：
通过对比替换方法；
词首（pill/fill、pill/kill、till/dill、till/kill、kill/gill）、词中（lock/log、bit/bid、hurt/heard、trap/trash）、词尾（hit/hot、feet/foot、fail/full、beat/boot、bit/but）具有最小对立体；
元音、辅音（lob/lead、pot/dog、pill/bell）均可成为最小对立体。
14.Suprasegmentalfeatures9（超音段特征）：
hephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.
）.Stress（重读）：
Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:
wordstressandsentencestress.
ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Thenounhasthestressonthefirstsyllableandthecorrespondingverbhasthestressonthesecondsyllable.
词重音实例:
'importn.--im'portv./'increasen.--in'creasev.'
Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.
AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,andthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.
Eg：
lackbird：
referstoaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack.（black`bird）
greenhouseandgreenhouse,hotdogandhotdog
词重音实例（动名词与分词）：
Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns.
Eg：
dining-room,readingglasses,sewingmachine,sleepingbaby,swimmingfish
Twotypes：
1）onetype,the-ingformservesasamodifierofthenoun,e.g.dining-room,readingglasses.Theseareactuallycompoundnouns.
Asarule,inpronouncingthistypeof-ing+nouncombinations,thewordstressalwaysfallsonthefirstelement;thesecondelementreceivessecondarystress:
'dining-room,'readingglasses,'sewingmachine.
2）theothertypeof-ing+nouncombinations,thenounisactuallythedoeroftheactionindicatedbythe-ingform,e.g.sleepingbaby,swimmingfish.
Thesearenotcompoundnouns,butnounphraseswithan-ingparticiplemodifier.Forthesecombinations,theprimarystressfallsontheheadnoun,andthe-ingformreceivessecondarystress.
Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.ThepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinanEnglishsentencearenouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns;theothercategoriesofwordslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.
Tone（音调）：
Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegmentalfeature.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecallto
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