工作满意度指标及其相关因素外文翻译可编辑.docx
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工作满意度指标及其相关因素外文翻译可编辑
工作满意度指标及其相关因素外文翻译
外文翻译
JobSatisfactionIndicatorsandTheirCorrelates
MaterialSource:
AmericanBehavioralscientistAuthor:
StanleyE.Seashore
Conceptionsofjobsatisfactionuntilveryrecentlyhavebeenlargelypsychologicalandindividualisticinorientation.Empiricalstudieshavebeenconfinedtolocalsituationsorspecialpopulationswithinterpretivepurposesreflectingthevaluesofemployedindividualsoroftheirmanagers.However,ifjobsatisfactionmeasuresaretobeusefulinmonitoringthequalityofemploymentonasocietalscale,itwillbenecessarytoenlargetheperspective,toinvokesomesocietalandpoliticalvalues,andtobegintotreatjobsatisfactioninthecontextofalargerarrayofassociatedvariablesThemeasurementofjobsatisfactionasasocialindicatormayhavethreeroles:
1torepresentavaluedproductofsociety-acomponentofthepsychologicalGNP;2toprovideamonitoringanddiagnosticaidfor’earlywarningofsocietaldislocations,policyorprogramfailure,andslowlydevelopingsocietalchanges;and3toprovideasignificantcomponentinthetheoriesandmodelstobeusedintheformulationofsocialpolicyandprograms.Opinionsdifferonhowprominentandhoweffectivejobsatisfactionmeasureswillbeinthesethreeroles.
Theutilityofjobsatisfactionmeasuresrestsonthedevelopmentofmultiplemeasurementmethodsthatarestandardized,suitableforwideuse,andcapableofdetectingpopulationdifferencesandpopulationchanges.Inaddition,theutilityrestsuponthesemeasureshavinganagreedconceptualand“realworld”referenceaswellasaknownmatrixofcausalandconsequentialrelationshipstoothersignificantvariables.Bothrequirementsmustbemetbeforeconvincingproofcanbeadvancedastothepracticalutilityofjobsatisfactionmeasuresforanticipating,understanding,andinfluencingfutureoutcomesofpresentsocietalconditionsThesethemesprovidethestructureforthispaper.Inthenextsection,wegiveanoverviewofthestateoftheartinthemeasurementofjobsatisfaction.Thesectionfollowingthatprovidesanapproachtoorganizing,ormodeling,thecorrelatesofjobsatisfaction.Thefinalsectionsuggestssomeprioritiesforfurtherresearchanddevelopment.
JOBSATISFACTIONINDICATORS
Thissectionsummarizesconsiderationsthatbearuponthechoiceofapproachesandoperationalmethodsformeasuringjobsatisfaction.Weshalllimitthediscussiontoapproachesthatrestupondirectinquirythroughintervieworquestionnairemethodstoproducedatathatcanbeaggregatedtoprovidejobsatisfactionindicatorsforvariouslydefinedpopulations.Weexcludefromdiscussion:
1indirectapproachesthatdrawinferencesaboutjobsatisfactionfrompresumedcausalorconsequentialphenomena;2approachesthatareprimarilyindividualisticanddiagnosticand,therefore,notusuallyapplicableforgeneratingpopulationindicators;and3approachesthathaveutilityprimarilyforempiricalandtheoreticaldiscoveryratherthanforpopulationdescriptionpurposes.
Wefirstreviewthecommonlyusedformsofprimarydata,thensomecommonlyusedderivativejobsatisfactionindicators.Aschemeispresentedtoguidetheevaluationoftheseseveralindicators.Theseareappliedtodrawimplicationsforpreferredfuturemethods.
Throughoutthepaper,exceptwherenoted,wewillusetheterm“jobsatisfaction”inclusivelytoreferalsotodissatisfactionwithoutintendedprejudicewhethersatisfactionanddissatisfactionarebesttreatedaspolaroppositesorastwoconceptuallydifferentvariables.
PRIMARYDATA
Byprimarydatawemeanthe“raw”responsesgivenbyindividualrespondentstoverbalquestionsorcomparablestimuli.Thereappearstobeafixedrosterofbasicformsofprimarydata,eventhoughinnumerablevariationsontheseareknown.Twokindsofprimarydataaredistinguished:
facet-freeandfacet-specific.
Facet-freeprimarydataareobtainedwhentherespondentisaskedtoindicatehisglobalsatisfactionwithhisjobandjobenvironmentwithoutspecifyinginadvancethefacetstobeconsideredorhowtheyaretobecombined.Ineffect,eachrespondentprovidesanetresponsederivedfromhisownsetoffacets,weightedorotherwisecombinedinhisownuniquefashion,withunstatedanduniqueassumptionsnotonlyaboutthecontextforevaluation,butalsoabouthisown“fit”tothejobanditsenvironment,andwiththeenvironmental“reality”definedbyhisownperceptionsandcognitions.Normative,cognitive,andunconsciouselementsintheevaluationareinvited.Thestimulusquestionsareusuallyphrasedornonverballydisplayedwithanintenttoimposethefewestpossibleconstraintsuponhisperceptual,cognitive,andevaluativeprocesses.Severalcomplementarystimulimaybeusedtodiversifytheunavoidableconstraints.
Facet-specificprimarydataareobtainedwhentherespondentisaskedtorepresenthissatisfactionwithrespecttosomespecifiedfacetofhisjoborjobenvironment.Sincethefacetspecificationisneverexhaustiveordefinitive,thedifferencebetweenafacet-freeandafacet-specificinquiryisonlyoneofdegree.Forexample,thequery“Howsatisfiedareyouwithyourpay?
”elicitsanetresponsethatincludesconsiderationofunspecifiedsubfacetsamountofpay,certaintyofpay,rateofincrease,adequacytoneed,andsoforth,unspecified“reality”lastweek’spay,payafterdeductions,payconfidentlyexpectednextyear,andthelike,andunknownperceptual,cognitive,andevaluativeprocesses.Nevertheless,facet-specificmethodsallowtheinquirersomecontrolovertherangeoffacetstobeincludedinhisdata,anaddeddegreeofcomparabilityamongdifferentrespondents,andcloserandmoreconfidentlinkagebetweentheresponseobtainedandthe“reality”ofthejobenvironmentorofthepersonunderinvestigation.Facet-specificqueries,thus,varyintheirspecificity.Inaddition,theytakethefollowingforms:
adirectreportofdegreeofsatisfactionwithfacetsatisfaction;
bamountordegreeoffacetprovidedbyjobisnow;
camountordegreeoffacetrespondentwouldliketohavewouldlike;
damountordegreeoffacetrespondentshouldbeprovidedshouldbe;
eimportanceoffacettorespondentimportance.
Theformsofresponseexistingreatvariety,includingsimplecheck-listor“yes-no”responses,rankordering,scalarresponsese.g.,Likertscales,“faces,”andthelike,andthemorecomplexformssuchas“self-anchoring”scales.Whilethesealternativesinviteusefuldiscussionabouttheirrelativereliability,efficiency,simplicity,itemutility,andconceptualassumptions,suchissueswillnotberaisedhere.Eachalternativeprovidesprimarydatapermittingaggregationforpopulationcomparisonorsocialindicatorpurposes.
DERIVEDDATA
Inthecaseofprimarydatathatrepresentthedirectorimpliedexpressionofjobsatisfaction,socialindicatorsmaybederivedbyasimpleaggregationofprimarydataforindividualsandthenanaggregationofindividualdataforthepopulation.Thisisoftendone,forexample,withrespecttomulti-item,facet-freeprimarydata,andwithprimarydataoftypesaandbabove.However,morecomplexformsofderivativeindexesarecommonlypreferredforvariousreasons.Proceduresforderivingindexesfromprimarydatainclude:
1differentialweightingofitems;2clusteringofitemsintofactorsordimensionsonconceptualorempiricalgrounds;3convertingprimarydatatoderiveddiscrepancyscoresontheoretical,conceptual,orempiricalgroundsbeforeaggregation;4retainingindividualfacetitemdatafordifferentialusesininterpretationoranalysis;5removingsomeuncontrolledresponsevariancebeforeaggregation;and6adjustingprimarydataforknownorpresumedbiasbeforeaggregation.Anyoftheseproceduresmaybeemployedsinglyorincombinationwithothers.Thelastthreeproceduresarerelativelytrivialoratleastnoncontroversialatthepresenttime;thefirstthreearetopicsofcurrentinquiryanddispute.
CORRELATESOFJOBSATISFACTION
Thissectionreviewswhatisknownandwhatshouldbecomeknownwithrespecttothecorrelatesofjobsatisfaction.Therangeofknowncorrelativesisdisplayedinawaythatwillaidtheassessmentofthepotentialroleofjobsatisfactionasoneindicator,amongothers,ofthequalityofemployment.Someexamplesofreportedempiricalcorrelationswillbegivenforillustrativepurposes,butwedonotattempttoreviewandcatalogallpublishedreportsbearingonthematter,nortoprovideevaluationofthevariousempiricalgeneralizationsthathavebeenadvanced.Weshallignoreforthepresentthediversityofconceptandmeasurementofjobsatisfactiontreatedintheprecedingsection.
SOCIALINDICATORSANDINTERPRETATIVEMODELS
Themeaningofanysocialindicatorisfoundinitsassignedroleinsomeconceptionofhowthesociety“works.”Thus,ameasuredchangeinsomeindicator-infantmortalityrate,forexample-isuninterpretableapartfromsomeknownorassumeddynamicstructureofsequentialchangesthatrelatestheobservedchangetocauses,consequences,andmoderatingconceptualfactors.Ideally,oneshouldhaveanempiricallyvalidatedtheory,broadinscope,embracingmultiplecausesandconsequences,capableofaccommodatingadditionalvariablesi.e.,anopensystem,andonethattreatschangesovertimei.e.,adynamictheory.Suchaninterpretivemodelwouldpermittheevaluationofachangeinsomesocialindicatorinseveralusefulways,mostimportantlyinestimatingfutureimplicationsoftheobservedchangeandinidentifyingpossiblesocietalactionstoforestallorcounteractundesirableconsequences.
Withrespecttojobsatisfaction,theredoesnotexistanysuchcomprehens