胡壮麟 Chapter 11.docx

胡壮麟 Chapter 11.docx

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胡壮麟Chapter11

Chapter11

LinguisticsandLanguageTeaching

⏹Appliedlinguistics

⏹Theoreticalviewsoflanguageexplicitlyorimplicitlyinformtheapproachesandmethodsadoptedinlanguageteaching.

⏹Linguistics,asthescienceoflanguage,shouldbeoffundamentalimportanceforteachersoflanguage.

⏹AccordingtoJoMcDonough,ateacherwhoisabletoexplainsomelinguisticfeatureswouldhaveastrongerpositionthanonewhohandlestheargumentbyusingauthority–“it’slikethat”,“it’sanexception”,or“it’slessformal”.

1.Linguisticsandlanguagelearning

⏹Manylanguagelearningtheoriesareproposedbasedoncertainlinguistictheories.

⏹Infact,knowledgeinlinguisticsliesattherootofunderstandingwhatlanguagelearnerscanlearn,howtheyactuallylearnandwhattheylearnultimately.

⏹AsRodEllispointsout,“whereasmuchoftheearlierworkfocusedonthelinguisticand,inparticular,thegrammatical-propertiesoflearnerlanguageandwaspsycholinguisticinorientation,laterworkhasalsoattendedtothepragmaticaspectsoflearnerlanguageand,increasingly,hasadoptedasociolinguisticperspective.

⏹Althoughcertainlanguagelearners（e.g.,advancedlearnersandstudentsmajoringaforeignlanguage）certainlybenefitfromaknowledgeoflinguistics,itisnotsensibletorecommendthemajorityoflanguagelearnerstostudylinguisticswhiletheyarestillstrugglingwiththetaskoflearningthelanguageitself.

1.1Grammar

⏹Asacompromisebetweenthe“purelyform-focusedapproaches”andthe“purelymeaning-focused”approaches,arecentmovementcalledfocusonformseemstotakeamorebalancedviewontheroleofgrammarinlanguagelearning.

FocusonForm

⏹Althoughlanguagelearningshouldgenerallybemeaning-focusedandcommunication-oriented,itisstillnecessaryandbeneficialtofocusonformoccasionally.

⏹Focusonformoftenconsistsofanoccasionalshiftofattentiontolinguisticcodefeatures—bytheteacherand/oroneormorestudents—triggeredbyperceivedproblemswithcomprehensionorproduction.

UniversalGrammar

⏹TwovariablesconcerningtheamenabilityoflanguageelementstofocusonformaretherelevanceofUniversalGrammar（UG）andthecomplexityoflanguagestructures.

⏹Accordingtotheadvocatesoffocusonform,ifanL2structureispartofUG,theamenabilityishigh;otherwise,theamenabilityislow.

⏹TheproblemisthatnooneknowsforsurewhatexactlyispartofUG.Itisherethatthestudyoflinguisticscomesintoplay.

⏹ThestudyofUG,whichisoftenconsideredasthetheoryforthesakeoftheory,isnowneededinlanguagelearningresearchinthemostpracticalsense.

⏹ThestudyofUGhasattractedconsiderableattentionfrommanysecondlanguageacquisitionresearchersbecauseknowledgeoflinguisticuniversalsmayhelptoshapeL2acquisitioninanumberofways.

⏹Forexample,itcanprovideexplanationsfordevelopmentalsequencesandlanguagetransfer.

Structuralcomplexity

⏹Itcanbeassumedthatlesscomplexstructureshavehigheramenability,butcomplexityishardtodefine.

⏹Formallysimplestructurescanbefunctionallycomplexandformallycomplexitemsarenotnecessarilyfunctionallycomplex.

⏹Againweresorttolinguisticsinordertohaveabetterunderstandingofthecomplexityoflanguagestructures.

Grammar-basedteaching

⏹Grammar-translationmethod

⏹Audiolingualmethod

⏹Situationallanguageteaching

1.2Input

⏹Languagelearningcantakeplacewhenthelearnerhasenoughaccesstoinputinthetargetlanguage.

⏹Thisinputmaycomeinwrittenorspokenform.

⏹Inthecaseofspokeninput,itmayoccurinthecontextofinteractionorinthecontextofnon-reciprocaldiscourse.

⏹Viewsdivergegreatlyastowhatkindofinputshouldbeprovidedforlanguagelearners.

⏹Authenticinput

⏹Comprehensibleinput（Krashen）:

i+1

⏹Premodifiedinput

⏹Interactivelymodifiedinput:

tendstodoabetterjob

Input-basedteaching

⏹Directmethod

⏹Naturalapproach

⏹Totalphysicalresponse

⏹Communicativeapproach

⏹Communitylanguagelearning（CLL）

⏹Suggestopedia

⏹Silentway

Suggestopedia:

LearnWhileYouSleep!

⏹TheBulgarianphysicianGeorgiLozanovdevisedalanguagelearningmethodcalledSuggestopedia.

CalebGattegno’sSilentWay

⏹Thisisachartcontainingacertainnumberofdifferentcolouredrectangles;eachcolourcorrespondstoasoundinthelanguage.

⏹TheFidelisasetofchartspresentingallthepossiblespellingsofeachsoundofthelanguage.

⏹Oneofthe12wordchartsonwhichthefunctionalwordsofthelanguageareprintedincolor.

1.3Interlanguage—output

⏹Thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguageisoftenreferredtoasinterlanguage.

⏹Itisoftenunderstoodasalanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.

⏹Interlanguageisadynamiclanguagesystem,whichisconstantlymovingfromthedepartureleveltothenative-likelevel.

⏹Canbedoneintwoways:

⏹investigatingthepsychological,biologicalorneurologicalmechanismsinvolvedintheproductionofinterlanguage;

⏹investigatingthelinguisticfeaturesofinterlanguage.

⏹Concerningthelinguisticfeaturesofinterlanguage,thefollowingquestionscanbeasked:

⏹Linguistically,howisinterlanguageingeneraldifferentfromthetargetlanguageorthenativelanguage?

⏹Inwhatwayislowerlevelinterlanguagedifferentfromhigherlevelinterlanguage?

⏹Howistheinterlanguagesystemusedtoconveymeaning?

Constructivism

⏹Language（oranyknowledge）issociallyconstructed.

⏹Learnerslearnlanguagebycooperating,negotiatingandperformingallkindsoftasks.

⏹Inotherwords,theyconstructlanguageincertainsocialandculturalcontexts.

2.LinguisticsandLanguageTeaching

⏹Linguisticstheoriesinfluenceourgeneralorientationinapproachestolanguageteaching.

⏹Linguisticknowledgehelpsteacherstobetterexplainthespecificlanguageitemstheyteach.

2.1Discourse-basedview

⏹Linguisticpatternsexistacrossstretchesoftext.

⏹Thesepatternsoflanguageextendbeyondthewords,clausesandsentences,whichhavebeenthetraditionalconcernofmuchlanguageteaching.

⏹Focusesoncompletespokenandwrittentextsandonthesocialandculturalcontextsinwhichsuchlanguageoperates.

⏹Accordingly,itaimsatdevelopingdiscoursecompetence,similartothewell-knownconceptofcommunicativecompetence.

Communicativecompetence

⏹DellHymes

⏹Whatalearnersknowsabouthowalanguageisusedinparticularsituationsforeffectiveandappropriatecommunication.

⏹Includesknowledgeofthegrammarandvocabulary,knowledgeofrulesofspeaking,knowledgeofhowtouseandrespondtodifferenttypesofspeechactsandsocialconventions,andknowledgeofhowtouselanguageappropriately.

⏹Itisbelievedthatlanguagelearningwillsuccessfullytakeplacewhenlanguagelearnersknowhowandwhentousethelanguageinvarioussettingsandwhentheyhavesuccessfullycognizedvariousformsofcompetencesuchasgrammaticalcompetence（lexis,morphology,syntaxandphonology）andpragmaticcompetence（e.g.,speechacts）.

⏹Inthecaseofforeign/secondlanguagelearning,languagelearnersareencouragedtodealwithaccomplishingactions,whicharethoughttohelpthemacquirethetargetlanguage.

⏹CommunicativeLanguageTeaching（CLT）andTask-basedLanguageTeaching（TBLT）arethebestknownexamplesofsuchatheory.

⏹IntheCLTorTBLTclassroom,studentsareexpectedtolearnbyperformingtasks.

Task-based

⏹Twobroadtypesoftasks:

real-worldtasksandpedagogicaltasks.

⏹Areal-worldtaskisveryclosetosomethingwedoindailylifeorwork.

⏹Pedagogicaltasksarethoseactivitiesthatstudentsdointheclassroombutthatmaynottakeplaceinreallife.（informationgap）

Drawbacks

⏹Overemphasizestheroleofexternalfactorsintheprocessoflanguageacquisitionandgiveslittleimportancetointernallearningprocesses.

⏹Similartothebehavioristicviewoflanguageacquisitioninthatenvironmentalfactorsandinputareattheverycenterinattemptingtoexplicatetheacquisitionprocess.

⏹Overstressestheroleofknowledgeofcompetenceandfunctionsinacquiringalanguage,andhencefailstonoticeuniversalprinciplesthatguidelanguageacquisition.

2.2UniversalGrammar（UG）

⏹NoamChomsky

⏹Anativespeakerpossessesakindoflinguisticcompetence.

⏹Thechildisbornwithknowledgeofsomelinguisticuniversals.

⏹Whileacquiringhismothertongue,hecompareshisinnatelanguagesystemwiththatofhisnativelanguageandmodifieshisgrammar.

⏹Inputispooranddeficientintwoways.

⏹Itis“degenerate”becauseitisdamagedbyperformancefeaturessuchasslips,hesitationsorfalsestarts.Accordingly,theinputisnotanadequatebaseforlanguagelearning.

⏹Itisdevoidofgrammarcorrections.Itdoesnotnormallycontain“negativeevidence”,theknowledgefromwhichthelearnercouldexercisewhatis“not”possibleinagivenlanguage.

⏹AlthoughUGwasnotoriginallyproposedtoaccountforsecondlanguageacquisition,manyresearchersareworkingonitsimplicationforlanguagelearningandteaching.

⏹VivianCookwroteawholebooktoaccountforsecondlanguageacquisitionbasedonChomsky’slinguistictheory.

Drawbacks

⏹UG’sprimaryaimistoaccountforhowlanguageworks,notacquisition.

⏹UGisonlyconcernedwiththecoregrammaroflanguage（syntax）.

⏹ThecommunicationfunctionisdiscardedinUG.

⏹Chomskyisconcernedonlywith‘competence’,therecanbel