胡壮麟 Chapter 11.docx

1、胡壮麟 Chapter 11Chapter 11 Linguistics and Language Teaching Applied linguistics Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching. Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language.

2、 According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is able to explain some linguistic features would have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by using authority “its like that”, “its an exception”, or “its less formal”.1. Linguistics and language learning Many language learning theories are

3、 proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. As Rod Ellis points out, “whereas much of the earlier work focused on the linguistic and, in p

4、articular, the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation, later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective. Although certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners and s

5、tudents majoring a foreign language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself. 1.1 Grammar As a compromise between the “purel

6、y form-focused approaches” and the “purely meaning-focused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning. Focus on Form Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it i

7、s still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code featuresby the teacher and/or one or more studentstriggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production. Universal Grammar Two variables conc

8、erning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures. According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low. The problem i

9、s that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play. The study of UG, which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory, is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense. The study of UG has attracted c

10、onsiderable attention from many second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways. For example, it can provide explanations for developmental sequences and language transfer. Structural complexity It can be assumed

11、 that less complex structures have higher amenability, but complexity is hard to define. Formally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally complex items are not necessarily functionally complex. Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the complexit

12、y of language structures. Grammar-based teaching Grammar-translation method Audiolingual method Situational language teaching1.2 Input Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. This input may come in written or spoken form. In the case of sp

13、oken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse . Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners. Authentic input Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input Interactively modified input: tends to

14、 do a better jobInput-based teaching Direct method Natural approach Total physical response Communicative approach Community language learning (CLL) Suggestopedia Silent waySuggestopedia: Learn While You Sleep! The Bulgarian physician Georgi Lozanov devised a language learning method called Suggesto

15、pedia. Caleb Gattegnos Silent Way This is a chart containing a certain number of different coloured rectangles; each colour corresponds to a sound in the language. The Fidel is a set of charts presenting all the possible spellings of each sound of the language. One of the 12 word charts on which the

16、 functional words of the language are printed in color. 1.3 Interlanguageoutput The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. It is often understood as a language system between the t

17、arget language and the learners native language. Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level. Can be done in two ways: investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of int

18、erlanguage; investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage. Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked: Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native language? In what way is lower level interla

19、nguage different from higher level interlanguage? How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?Constructivism Language (or any knowledge) is socially constructed. Learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. In other words, they construct language

20、in certain social and cultural contexts. 2. Linguistics and Language Teaching Linguistics theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teaching. Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better explain the specific language items they teach. 2.1 Discourse-based view Linguistic p

21、atterns exist across stretches of text. These patterns of language extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching. Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates.

22、Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse competence, similar to the well-known concept of communicative competence. Communicative competence Dell Hymes What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. Includes knowledge of t

23、he grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately. It is believed that language learning will successfully take place when language learners know

24、how and when to use the language in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts). In the case of foreign/second language learning, language l

25、earners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which are thought to help them acquire the target language. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) are the best known examples of such a theory. In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are expected to le

26、arn by performing tasks. Task-based Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work. Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life. (informat

27、ion gap)Drawbacks Overemphasizes the role of external factors in the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning processes. Similar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to e

28、xplicate the acquisition process. Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a language, and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide language acquisition. 2.2 Universal Grammar (UG) Noam Chomsky A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence

29、. The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals. While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his innate language system with that of his native language and modifies his grammar. Input is poor and deficient in two ways. It is “degenerate” because it is damaged by performance feat

30、ures such as slips, hesitations or false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an adequate base for language learning. It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not normally contain “negative evidence”, the knowledge from which the learner could exercise what is “not” possible in a given language

31、. Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisition, many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching. Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second language acquisition based on Chomskys linguistic theory. Drawbacks UGs primary aim is to account for how language works, not acquisition. UG is only concerned with the core grammar of language (syntax). The communication function is discarded in UG. Chomsky is concerned only with competence, there can be l