英语专业词汇学课本及标准答案.docx

英语专业词汇学课本及标准答案.docx

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英语专业词汇学课本及标准答案

英语专业词汇学课本及标准答案

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Chapter3MorphologicalStructureofEnglishWords

Wehavediscussedthehistorical,culturalandsocialfactorsthatfacilitate（使……容易；推动）thedevelopmentoftheEnglishvocabulary.Borrowing,aswesee,hasbeenplayinganactiveroleintheexpansionofvocabulary.Inmoderntimes,however,vocabularyismainlyenlargedonaninternalbasis.Thatis,weuseword-buildingmaterialavailableinEnglishtocreatenewwords.Butbeforewediscusstheactualwaysandmeanstomakenewwords,weneedtohaveaclearpictureofthestructureofEnglishwordsandtheircomponents（成分）—word-formingelements.Thischapterwilldiscussmorphemes（语素；词素）,theirclassification（分类）andidentification（辨别）,therelationshipbetweenmorphemesandword-formation（构词法）.

3.1Morphemes

Traditionally,wordsareusuallytreatedasthebasicandminimalunitsofalanguagetomakesentences,whicharecombinationsofwordsaccordingtosyntacticrules（句法规则）.Structurally,however,awordisnotthesmallestunitbecausemanywordscanbeseparatedintoevensmallermeaningfulunits.Takedecontextualizationforexample.Thisisoneword,butcanbebrokendownintode-,con-,text,-a/,-iz（e）,-ation,eachhavingmeaningofitsown.Thesesegments（部分）cannotbefurtherdivided;otherwise,noneofthemwouldmakeanysense.Though-ationhasanumberofvariants（变体）suchas-tion,-sion,-ion,theybelongtothesamesuffixastheyhavethesamemeaningandgrammaticalfunctionandoccurowingto（因为；根据）differentsoundenvironment.Theseminimalmeaningfulunitsareknownasmorphemes（morpheistheGreekwordfor'form';-emeasin'phoneme'（音素）means'classof'）.Inviewofword-formation,themorphemeisseenas'thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwords'（Crystal1985）.Syntactically（从句法上看）,however,amorphemeistheminimalformofgrammaticalanalysis（语法分析）.Forinstance,eachoftheword-formsstudies,studying,studied,consistsofthemorphemestudy+;theforms-esinstudies,-inginstudying,-edinstudiedaremorphemes,whichexpressgrammaticalconcepts（语法概念）insteadofderivingnewwords（SeeClassifyingMorphemes）.

3.2MorphsandAllomorphs（词素变体）

Morphemesareabstractunits,whicharerealizedinspeechbydiscreteunits（具体单位）knownasmorphs（形素）.'Theyareactualspoken,minimalcarriersofmeaning'（BolingerandSears1981:

43）.Inotherwordsthephoneticororthographicstrings（语音串或拼写字串）orsegments（切分成分；节）whichrealizemorphemesaretermed'morphs'（Bauer1983:

15）.Themorphemeistothemorphwhataphoneme（音位）istoaphone（音素）.Mostmorphemesarerealizedbysinglemorphslikebird,tree,green,sad,want,desire,etc..Thesemorphemescoincide（巧合）withwordsastheycanstandbythemselvesandfunctionfreelyinasentence.Wordsofthiskindarecalledmono-morphemicwords.Somemorphemes,however,arerealizedbymorethanonemorphaccordingtotheirpositioninaword.Forinstance,themorphemeofplurality{-s}hasasetofmorphsindifferentsoundcontext,e.g.incats/s/,inbags/z/,inmatches/iz/.Thealternates（作为替换的事物）/s/,/z/and/iz/arethreedifferentmorphs.Thesameistrueofthelinkverbmorpheme{be}.Itspasttenseisrealizedbytwodistinctorthographicformswas,were,eachofwhichhappenstobeaword-form,realizing{preterit}and{singular},and{preterit}and{plural}respectivelyandeachhasitsownphoneticform/woz/or/wə:

/.Therefore,bothwas,wereandtheirphoneticforms/woz/and/wə:

/aremorphs（SeediscussioninBauer,p15）.

Anallomorphreferstoamemberofasetofmorphs,whichrepresentonemorpheme.Justasweclassphones（音素）togetherasallophones（音位变体）ofasinglephoneme（音位）,soweclassmorphstogetherasallomorphsofasinglemorpheme.Takethepluralmorpheme{-s}again.Phonetically,itisrealizedby/s/,/z/,/iz/,allofwhichareallomorphs.InEnglish,manymorphemescanhavemorethanoneallomorph,particularlythosefreestandingmorphemeswhicharefunctionalwordsintheirownright.Oncetheyoccurinconnectedspeech,theymayberealizedbydifferentforms,dependingonwhethertheyareaccentedorweakened（Lookatthedatainthetable）.

Morpheme

Allomorph

Strong

Weak

{am}

/aem/

/əm/,/m/

{was}

/woz/

/WəZ/

{have}

/haev/

/həv/,/v/

{would}

/wud/

/wəd/,/əd/,/d/

{he}

/hi:

/

/i:

/,/i/

{his}

/hiz/

/iz/

{for}

/fo:

/

/fə/

{to}

/tu:

/

/tu/,/tə/

Thenwhatisthedifferencebetweenmorphsandallomorphs?

Therelationshipcanbeillustratedbythediagrambelow.

Morpheme

{would}

morphmorphmorphmorph→allomorph

/wud//wəd//əd//d/

3.3ClassifyingMorphemes

Morphemesvaryinfunction.Accordingly,wecanclassifymorphemesintoseveralgeneralcategories:

freeversusbound,derivationalversusinflectional,andlexicalversusgrammatical.However,theirboundariesarenotasclear-cutastheyappeartobeduetosomeoverlapping（重叠）.Forthesakeofdiscussion,weshalldefineeachtypeintermsofitscharacteristics.

1.FreeversusBoundMorphemes（自由词素与粘着词素）

Thisistheeasiestandmostpreferredclassificationinmorphologicalstudies,discussedinHatchandBrown（1995）,Crystal（1985）,FromkinandRodman（1983）,Bauer（1983）,BolingerandSears（1981）andMatthews（2000）.Morphemeswhichareindependentofothermorphemesarefree.Thesemorphemeshavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences.Theyareidenticalwith（与……完全相同）words,forexample,man,earth,wind,carandanger.

Morphemeswhichcannotoccurasseparatewordsarebound.Theyaresonamedbecausetheyareboundtoothermorphemestoformwordsortoperformaparticulargrammaticalfunction.Boundmorphemesarechieflyfoundinderivedwords（派生词）.Letustakerecollection,idealisticandex-prisonerforexample.Eachofthethreewordscomprisesthreemorphemes:

recollection（re-collect-ion）,idealistic（ideal-ist-ic）,ex-prisoner（ex-prison-er）.Oftheninemorphemes,collect,idealandprisoncanstandbythemselvesandthusarefreemorphemes.Alltherestre-,-ion,-ist,-ic,ex-and-erareboundasnoneofthemarefreestandingunits.

Freemorphemesareallroots,whicharecapableofbeingusedaswordsorasword-buildingelementstoformnewwordslikecollect,ideal,prison,whereasboundmorphemesconsistofeitherrootsoraffixes,mostofwhichcanbeusedtocreatenewwordslike-dict-,-ced-（接近；去）,re-,-ion,-ist,-icandex-（前）.Butthereareafewaffixeswhichcanonlyindicatesuchgrammaticalconceptsastense,aspect,numberandcase,forexample,the-inginwatching,-erineasier,-sinbooks,and-edinworked.

TheEnglishlanguagepossessesamultitudeof（大量的）wordsmadeupofmerelyboundmorphemes,e.g.antecedent,whichcanbebrokendownintoante-,-ced-and-ent.Amongthem,-ced-isarootmeaning'approach,goto',ante-,aprefixmeaning'before'and-ent,anounsuffixmeaning'aperson,athing',thusthewholewordantecedentmeaning'somethingthatgoesbefore'（前例；前事；先行词；祖先）.Theseexamplesshowclearlythatboundmorphemesincludetwotypes:

boundroot（SeeRoot,Stem,Base）andaffix.

2.DerivationalversusInflectionalMorphemes

Morphemeswhichareusedtoderivenewwordsareknownasderivationalmorphemes（派生词素）becausewhenthesemorphemesareconjoined,newwordsarederived.InEnglish,derivativesandcompoundsareallformedbysuchmorphemes.Forexample,a+mor+ai,clear+ance,Life+Likeandhomo+gen+eousareresultsofsuchmorphologicalprocesses.

Inflectionalmorphemes（屈折词素）,incontrast,indicatethesyntacticrelationshipsbetweenwordsandfunctionasgrammaticalmarkers.Inflectionalmorphemesareconfinedtosuffixes.Thereistheregularpluralsuffix-s（-es）whichisaddedtonounssuchasmachines,fridges,desks,radiosandpotatoes;thesameformscanbeaddedtoverbstoindicatethesimplepresentforthethirdpersonsingularsuchaslikes,worksandgoes;theform-'sisusedtodenotethepossessivecaseofnounssuchasthechildren'slibrary,theman'sroleandthemother-in-law'scomplaints;thesuffixes-er,-estareusuallyattachedtosimpleadjectivesoradverbstoshowtheircomparativeorsuperlativedegreeslikehappier—happiest,harder—hardest.Apartfromthese,thereisthepasttensemarker-edandprogressivemarker-ingaddedtoverbs.Thedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalmorphemescanbesummarizedasfollows（SeeHatchandBrown,p266）:

Inflectional

Derivational

（1）Doesnotchangemeaningorpartofspeechofthestem

（1）Changesmeaningorpartofspeechofthestem.

（2）Indicatessyntacticorsemanticrelationsbetweendifferentwordsinasentence.

（2）Indicatessemanticrelationswithintheword.

（3）Occurswithallmembersofsomelargeclassofmorphemes.

（3）Occurswithonlysomemembersofaclassofmorphemes.

（4）Occursatmarginsofwords.

（4）Occursbeforeanyinflectionalsuffixesadded.

3.ContentversusGrammaticalMorphemes

Onasemanticandsyntacticbasis,morphemescanfallintocontentandgrammaticalmorphemes（TraugottandPratt1980:

90;BolingerandSears,pp66~70;HatchandBrown,p267）.Contentmorphemesarelexicalmorphemeswhichareusedasweseeabovetoderivenewwords,soalsoknownasderivationalmorphemes.Thesemorphemes,whetherfreeorbound,havealexicalcontent,hencethename.Grammaticalmorphemes,ontheotherhand,functionprimarilyasgrammaticalmarkers.Theyencompassbothinflectionalaffixesandfreemorphemessuchasin,and,do,have,they,-while,-where,butandthat,whicharetraditionallycalledfunctionalwords.

3.4IdentifyingMorphemes（词素的区分）

Sincemorphemes