新科学和技术以及创新在印度的发展外文翻译 学士学位论文.docx

新科学和技术以及创新在印度的发展外文翻译 学士学位论文.docx

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新科学和技术以及创新在印度的发展外文翻译学士学位论文

毕业论文（设计）外文翻译

外文题目：

NewScience,TechnologyandInnovationDevelopmentsInIndia

出处：

SupportingScience&TechnologyPolices

作者：

PIKAYRICHARDSON

原文:

Abstract

ThispaperreviewsthescienceandtechnologypoliciesofIndiaandhowthesehavefashionedIndia’stechnologycapabilityovertheyears.ItshowsthatwhileIndiahasachievedenormousstridesintheareaofscience,technologyandinnovation,inappropriatepoliciesinthepasthavehamperedthedevelopmentofaneffectivenationalinnovationsystem.ThepaperconcludesbydrawinglessonsforthedevelopmentofanEU-widescienceandtechnologypolicy

2.TrendsinSTIDevelopmentsinIndia

2.2TrendsinIndia’sScienceandTechnologyPolicy

Ithaslongbeenrecognizedthatinvestmentinscienceandtechnologymakessubstantialcontributiontoeconomicgrowthintermsofhighergrowthratesofaneconomy’stotalfactorproductivity（Abramovitz,1956,Denison1962andSolow,1957,amongothers）.Inadditiontodirectreturns,huge（positive）externalitieshavealsobeenfoundtobeassociatedwithit（Abramovitz,1989）.Takingcognisanceoftheimportanceoftechnology’sroleindevelopment,advancedcountriesnurturecontinuingdevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyandmostdevelopingcountriesadoptR&Dpoliciesintheearlyphasesoftheirdevelopment.ScienceandTechnologypolicyconstitutesanintegralpartofanation’soverallindustrialpolicy（BarberandWhite,1987）.Whiletheformershapesthepaceanddirectionoftechnologydevelopment,thelatterdeterminesthenatureofdemand.ThissectionreviewstheevolutionofScienceandTechnologypolicyinIndiasinceindependence。

ScienceandTechnologypolicyofanynationiscarvedwithinthebackgroundofoverallindustrialpolicy.Ifanything,S&Tpolicyissupposednotonlytogivemeaningto,butmoreimportantly,toensureachievementofthegoalsofindustrialpolicy.ItisthereforethethrustanddirectionofindustrialpolicythatdeterminesthetenetsofanyS&Tpolicy,althoughitmustbesaidthatR&Dmayleadtoresultsthatmayalsochangethecourseofindustrialpolicy.Evenso,S&Tpolicyhasalmostalwaysbeendrivenbythegoalsofindustrialdevelopmentpolicy.ThissectionthereforedescribesthedevelopmentstrategyadoptedbythegovernmentinthevariousphasesofdevelopmentandanalysestheaccompanyingS&Tpolicy.TwostrandsofS&Tpolicyhaveexisted–policiesrelatedtotechnologytransferfromabroadthroughformalmodessuchasFDI,technologylicensingandcapitalgoodsimportsanddomestictechnologygenerationpolicies.Havingrealizedthatthepursuitofautarkiceconomicpoliciesinmuchofthepost-independenceperiodto1990wasamistake,Indiaundertooksweepingreformsasawayofspeedingeconomicgrowthandachievingfasterintegrationintotheworldeconomy.Partofthesereformshasbeenthere-enactmentofascienceandtechnologypolicymoresuitedtotheachievementofthegoalsofbuildingaprosperousnation.

3.Responseto/ImpactofReforms

3.2.2GlobalR&DCenters

HirwaniandJain（1999）haveshownthatalthoughmarket-orientedactivitiesweremoreimportanttoMNEsinmostofthe1990s,technologyorientedactivitiesaregrowinginimportance.Hitherto,MNEshadbeenemphasizingastrategyofcustomizingproductsfortheIndianmarketandofobtainingcost-efficientmanufacturingfacilitiesinIndia.Increasingly,however,therehasbeenaclearmovetowardsobtainingaccesstohighqualityscientists,engineersanddesignersinIndia.SomeR&DcenterssetupinIndiabysomeMNEsconductcontractresearchforthecorporatelaboratoriesoutsideIndia.Priorto1991,theestablishmentofsuchR&DcentersbyMNEswasconsciouslylacking.SinceIndiasignedtheGATTAgreementin1993andsubsequentlypassedtheIntellectualPropertylawin1994,over60MNEshavesetupR&Dcentersintechnologyintensiveindustries,mostlytotakeadvantageofthestrongpoolofhighly-trainedengineersandscientists.Before1991,therewereonlytwosuchcentersinthecountry.

ApartfromthesettingupofnewcentersinIndiatotakeadvantageoftheliberalizedatmosphere,theraisond’êtreandmodeofoperationofexistingcentershavealsobeenchangingbythenewmarketenvironment.SomecompanieshavecompletelyrestructuredtheirR&DcentersinIndia,shiftingthefocusfromdevelopingproductsforIndianmarketstomakingthemcentersofglobalexcellence.Othershaveexpandedtheir.operationsandhiredmanyIndianscientistsandtechnologists.Thisismoreevidentintheareasofinformationandcomputertechnology.SuchcentersconductR&Dforworldwideoperations.TheavailabilityofhighqualitylaborhasbeenamotivatingfactorintheestablishmentofcentersbycompaniessuchasAstra,Unilever,GEandSoftwareDevelopmentCentersofTexasInstruments,Oracle,Microsoftandothers.SubstantialR&Dpresencehasalsobeenestablishedintheareasofpharmaceuticalsandbiotechnology.

3.4CommercialOrientationofPublicResearchOrganizations

Indiahasastrongindustrialresearchinfrastructure,whichwasfosteredintheearlystagesofitspost-independencegrowth.Whilethesupply-sidewasgenerously

supported,theindustrialresearchsystem,priortoliberalization,wasmostlygearedto

importsubstitution（BowonderandRichardson,2000）.ThepubliclyfundedCouncilofScientificandIndustrialResearch（CSIR）andotherbodiestendedtobeisolatedentitieswithlittleornolinkstoindustry.Insuchaprotectedenvironment,therewasnoneedtobenchmarktheiractivitiestothoseofglobalplayers.Alsotheiractivitieswereonlymarginallyfocusedoncommercialization.Thelastdecadehasseenmanyoftheselaboratoriesbecomemorecommerciallyoriented.TheyhavebeendirectingtheireffortstowardsinternationalqualityR&D.Tworecentmajorpolicythrustshavebeen（a）anincreaseinthequestforpatentinginEuropeandtheUSA,asameansofengenderingastrongdesiretoundertakeR&Dandtoinnovateand（b）anincreaseinthecommercialorientationofindustrialresearch,withaviewtomakingthesebodieslessdependentonpublicbudgetarysupport.

3.6FDISpill-over’sandTechnologicalCapability

LiberalizationpoliciesandtheresponsebybothforeignandIndiancompaniesalikehavehadmanyspilloversthatarevaluableforIndia’stechnologicalcapability.Thegrowthofthesoftwareindustryhashadwide-rangingimpactontheeconomy.Thedemandforsoftwareimportsandthesettingupofforeigndevelopmentcentershavecontributedtotherapidincreaseincompensationlevels,estimatedatanannualrateof25%inthesecondhalfofthe1990s.Otherbenefitshaveincludedstockoptionsandgoodemploymentopportunities,therebyslowingbraindraintosomeextent.ForeignparticipationhasexposedIndianengineersandscientiststonewtechnologiesandmadethemmoresensitivetotheprotectionofintellectualproperty（softwareIPpiracywasestimatedtohaverisenfrom59%to61%between1999and2000（Krishnan,2001）.Anotherfactorhasbeenthesharpincreaseintheoutputofdegree-anddiplomaawardinginstitutions.Thenumberofinstitutionsofferingformaldegree-leveleducationinengineeringmorethandoubledbetween1990and2000,from339to776.Studentintakecapacityalsodoubledwith80%riseinthescience/engineeringplaces.

AlthoughventurecapitalorganizationsstartedtoemergeinIndiain1986,thegrowthoftechnology-basedventuresdidnotcatchup.Inthelastdecade,however,therehasbeenasubstantialriseinIT-basedventurecapital.Nigam（2001）recordsthatventurecapitalinvestmentsreached$350millionin2000,asagainstafigureoflessthan$5millionin1995.Alargechunkofthisamount（70%）wasdirectedintotheITsector.Manynewventurecapitalfirmsarebeingsetup,eitherbyIndian-basedindustrialistsandyoungprofessionalsorbyIndiansbasedoverseas.

Althoughrecentstudies（ChandrasekharandBasavarajappa,2001;MehtaandSama,2001）showthattherehasbeenlittlechangeinR&DintensityofIndianindustry,therehasbeenaclearshifttowardincreasedproductdevelopmentandinnovation（KrishnanandPrabha,1999）.Thishasbeenaccompaniedbyincreasedawarenessofintellectualproperty（IP）rightsand,byimplication,theimportanceofpatenting.AccordingtotheUSPatentOffice,ofthetenIndia-basedorganizationswhichfiledthelargestnumberofUSpatentsinthe1995-2000period,threeareIndianpharmaceuticalcompanies.TheCSIRhasalsobeenfilingpatentsinIndiaandtheUS,allthisresultofnewoutward-lookingpolicies.

4.ScienceandTechnologyPolicyinRelationtotheMultilateralSystem

IndiaisafoundermemberoftheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade（GATT）1947anditssuccessor,theWorldTradeOrganisation（WTO）,whichcameintoeffectonJanuary11995,aftertheconclusionoftheUruguayRoundofmultilateraltradenegotiations.India'sparticipationisbasedontheneedtoensuremorestabilityandpredictabilityininternationaltradewithaviewtoachievingmoretradeandprosperityforitselfandtheothermembersoftheWTO.ThemultilateraltradingsystemadministeredbytheWTOaimstobringaboutorderliness,transparencyandpredictabilityinglobaltradethroughreductionsintariffs,progressiveremovalofnon-tariffbarriers,eliminationoftrade-distortingmeasuresandsystemsofvaluestoserveasguidelinesfornationallegislationtobringaboutuniformityinlawsandregulationseverywhere.

TheestablishmentoftheWTOhascreatedaforumforcontinuousnegotiationstoreconciledifferingandoftentimesconflictinginterestsofmembers.AlthoughthereisunanimityintheprovisionsofInternationalTradetheorythatfreetradeenhancesglobalwelfare,nationalisma