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consumed;

createsindividualwelfare（allhumanhappinessisaproductofconsumption）

2.Socialwelfare=sumofindividualwelfare（nocommonhappiness）

3.LandUseapplication:

maximizationofefficientindividualuse=socialwelfare

Rational"

Selfish"

Utility–Maximizers.Weashumanbeingsseektorationallymaximizeourownwelfarebymakingchoicestoproduceandconsumeatpricesthatfitourdesires.

1."

Indogenous"

preferences-individuatedsatisfaction

2.Blackbox:

onlywhenapersonconsumessomethingcananybodylearnwhatthatpersonwants

3.Preferencesaregiven,completeandconsistent:

nodevelopmentalstates-rationaleconomicbeingsdon'

thaveinternalconflicts.Immediatesatisfaction,nohesitation,nowillpower.

4.Humanbeingsareself-regarding-nointerdependencebetweenpersons'

preferences:

whatwillmakeMEhappy?

Thisisnotaffectedbyanyoneelse'

shappiness.

5.Rationality-peopleareassumedtoknowexactlyhowtogetwhattheywant;

nopossibilityoferror.

SocialWelfare"

-everyoneshouldwantEVERYONEtobeOK

EfficientMarket-inaworldofscarcity,peopleshouldbeabletochoosewhattheywant&

whattheyarewillingtopayinordertoconsume;

peopleshouldbeabletodeterminewhattheyarewillingtoownandthepricetheyarewillingtoacceptinordertoproduce

Government"

Intervention"

-involvementbygovernmenttofixmarketfailures;

Examples:

legislate;

bantransactions;

determinepricing;

paternalisticcontrols;

controllingexternalities.Notallfailurerequiresintervention-itsimplycreatesissues.

Zoning

Euclid:

Amunicipalzoningordinancewillsurviveasubstantivedueprocesschallengesolongasitisnot"

clearlyarbitraryandunreasonable,havingnosubstantialrelationtothepublichealth,safety,morals,orgeneralwelfare."

（Ct.upheldzoningordinancethatlimitedowner’suseofproperty.Gov’tinterestwastopreventindustrialClevelandfromgrowingintoandsubsumingEuclid,asuburbofCleveland）.Euclidbroughttogetherfourpriortheoriestoprovethatmodernzoningisaproperuseofthepolicepower:

1.“AverageReciprocityofAdvantage,”

2.“PublicNuisanceAnalogy,”

3.“MarketAllocationAnalogy”（zoningcorrectsamarketfailure）,andthepurposesof“AestheticsandPlanImplementation,”

Nectow:

Theapplicationofageneralzoninglawtoparticularpropertyeffectsatakingiftheordinancedoesnotsubstantiallyadvancelegitimatestateinterests.（master’sfindingoffactthatexcludingbusinessandindustryuseonthisparticularparcelwasanarbitraryandirrationalexerciseofgovernmentpower）

44Plaza（note,57）:

Unreasonable,unusual,orunnaturaluseofone’spropertywhichsubstantiallyimpairstherightofanothertoenjoyhispropertyisaprivatenuisance（CLjudicialdetermination）.

Goldbergv.RichmondHts./Schrankv.PenningtonCty.（note,58）:

re-affirmedEuclid;

zoningisalegislativeactaccordedwithapresumptionofconstitutionality,whichincludeslocalapplicationandinterpretation.

Pro-Ecov.JayCty.（note,58）:

πwithSDPclaimmustdemonstrateeitherthatthezoningordinanceinfringesafundamentallibertyinterestorthatit’s‘arbitraryandunreasonable,’withnosubstantialrelationtopublicHW&

S,moralsorgeneralwelfare.

BelleTerre（note,59）:

policepowerextendstocity’sauthoritytoregulatelandusesbasedonaesthetics,valuesandlocalcharacterbecausetheyarelegitimategovernmentinterests

Gaffney:

Characterizing“permitteduse”isbasedonitsactivities/operations;

facilitiesaresecondary（nudistclubonopen-spaceprivatepropertyisnotaprivaterecreationalfacilityasdefinedbyordinance）

JudicialConstructionofLocalAuthority

Dillon’sRule:

Courtsmustnarrowlyconstruestategrantsoflocalgovernmentauthority.Mustbe:

1.expresslygrantedbythestatelegislature,or

2.fairlyornecessarilyimpliedfromexpresslygrantedpowers,or

3.powerswhichareessentialandindispensible

Home-RuleJx:

citiesandcountieswithcharterspursuanttotheirstateconstitutionhaveautonomyofdecision-making,limitedbystatelawonissuesofstatewideconcern.

SpotZoning:

Applicablewhentextormapamendmentoccurs.Maybeperseillegalunderstatutoryauthorityorchallengedbyrequestingjudicialreviewofrelevantfactsgenerally.ListoffactorscitedinRodriguez:

1.existingusesandzoningofnearbyproperty

2.economicdiminishmentofpropertyduetozoningrestrictions

3.extentthatdestructionofπ’spropertypromotesHW&

S,moralsorgeneralwelfareofpublic

4.publicgainv.hardshipimposedonindividualpropertyowner

5.suitabilityofsubjectpropertyforzonedpurposes

6.lengthoftimepropertyhasbeenvacatedaszonedinrelationtolanddevelopmentinvicinity

7.communityneedforproposeduse（requiressubstantialevidenceintherecord）

Bonus:

somestatutesauthorizewrittenNIMBYproteststocircumventproposedchangesifaminimumpercentageofaffectedpropertyownersopposethechanges;

othersrequireconsentofneighbors.

FlexibilityDevices

Variances:

proposeddevelopmentisforbiddenbyordinance

1.UseVariance:

unnecessaryhardshiptest—ownercan’treasonablyuse,uniquecircumstances,alterationofessentialcharacteroflocality,hardshipnotaresultofapplicant’sownactions.Easiestproof—significantphysicaldifferencesfromsimilarlysituatedproperties.Wouldrequireprohibitiveexpensetoconformforpermitteduse.（outlawedinseveralJX–backdoorzoningchange）

2.AreaVariance（bulk—lotsize,height,setback,yardreq.）:

Practicaldifficultiestest—samething.

3.VariancesaresafetyvalvesforstrictEuclidianapplication;

100-acresnottoolarge;

runswiththeland;

merepurchaseofpropertywithnoticethatvarianceisneededisnotnecessarilyself-createdhardship.

4.Bonus:

（verticalconsist.,subst.evid.）NJ&

NHcaveats:

requireproofthatvariancewon’tsubstantiallyimpairintentandpurposeofplanandordinance;

won’tinjurepublicorprivaterightsofothers

UsePermitsandConditions:

recognizedorauthorizedbyordinance;

grantedbyadjudicatorydecisionafternoticeandhearing,whichmustadheretolegislativelyproscribedstandards;

conditionsmustrelatetouse.

FloatingZones:

boundariesareundefinedwithinadistrictand“float”overentiredistrictuntilbyappropriateactiontheboundariesarefixedanditbecomesanchoredwithoutamendingthegeneralzoningordinance.Rodgers（NIMBYdoesn’twantapartmentsonanchored10-acrefloatingzone）upheldtheconceptasvalid.

1.PennsylvaniarejecteditinEvesbecausefloatingzonesawaitsolicitationfromindividuallandownerssothedevelopmentbecomestheplan,whichistheantithesisofzoninginaccordancewithacomprehensiveplan.

2.Issue:

Is“anchoring”quasi-legislativebecausetheactionchangesthelaw?

3.Issue:

Is“anchoring”quasi-judicialbecausetheactionfocusesonaspecificproperty?

“Evolved”landusecontrols:

1.overlayzones–superimpositionofanewzoningdistrictonthezoningmap’sdesignationsinordertoprotectspecificresources,suchashistoricbuildings

2.performancezoning–determinesdensityinlightofenvironmentalconstraintsofeachsitus

3.transferabledevelopmentrights–allowingsale/transferofrightsfromonepieceofpropertyforuseonanother

PlannedUnitDevelopments:

largescale,unifiedzoningdistrictsdesignedtocreateefficient,self-containedcommunities.Generally,PUDsare:

∙combinelandusesanddwellingtypes,resultinginconcentrationofroads

∙Encourageincreasedavailabilityofaffordablehousing

∙Considerphysical,socialandeconomicdeficienciesinusablelandandmunicipalobjectives

∙Clusterresidentiallandusestogenerateopenspaceandreduceinfrastructurecosts

∙Streamlinedecisionsbyincreasinglocaladministrativediscretion

∙Encouragebargainingbetweenthedeveloperandgovernment,whichstrengthensthemunicipality’ssiteplanreviewandcontroloverdevelopmentforpotentiallyincreasedprofitsduetolandefficiency,multiplelanduses,andincreasedresidentialdensities.

ImplementationofaPUDcanoccurby:

1.Beingwrittenintotheplan,madeavailablebycitycouncilwithflexibleplanningguidelines

2.Legislativereviewandamendmentofoverlapping（andpotentiallyconflicting）zoningandsubdivisionregulations

IssueswithPUDs:

arbitraryapprovals,inconsistentstandards,lossofcertainty,abuseofdiscretion,bargainingawayofpolicepoweragainstgeneralwelfare

SitePlanReview:

Retentionofdiscretionaryauthority.AffordslocalJXanopportunitytoundertakeadetailedanalysisofprecisefeaturesofadevelopmentproject,designedtoreduceadverseimpactsfromunforeseenissues,evenwithpermitteduses,notaccountedforingeneralplanorzoningregulations.

SubdivisionRegulation–Plattingstatutes

LegalStandard:

“substantialevidenceintherecord.”Asubdivisionmustmeetallrequirementsestablishedthroughsubdivisionregulation,zoningorthecomprehensiveplanbasedon:

1.Evidenceintherecord

2.Findingsoffact

3.Decisionbasedonfindingsoffact

4.IftheplandoesNOTmeettheserequirements,itMUSTbedenied.

5.IfitDOESmeettheserequirements,thecitymaystillexerciseitsdiscretionanddenyitanyway.

Purposesofsubdivisiondevelopmentreview（alwaysanadjudicatoryact