外文翻译工程管理Word下载.docx

外文翻译工程管理Word下载.docx

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QualityControl、SafetyDuringConstructionandCostControl

QualityandSafetyConcernsinConstruction

Qualitycontrolandsafetyrepresentincreasinglyimportantconcernsforprojectmanagers.Defectsorfailuresinconstructedfacilitiescanresultinverylargecosts.Evenwithminordefects,re-constructionmayberequiredandfacilityoperationsimpaired.Increasedcostsanddelaysaretheresult.Intheworsecase,failuresmaycausepersonalinjuriesorfatalities.Accidentsduringtheconstructionprocesscansimilarlyresultinpersonalinjuriesandlargecosts.Indirectcostsofinsurance,inspectionandregulationareincreasingrapidlyduetotheseincreaseddirectcosts.Goodprojectmanagerstrytoensurethatthejobisdonerightthefirsttimeandthatnomajoraccidentsoccursontheproject.

Aswithcostcontrol,themostimportantdecisionsregardingthequalityofacompletedfacilityaremadeduringthedesignandplanningstagesratherthanduringconstruction.Itisduringthesepreliminarystagesthatcomponentconfigurations,materialspecificationsandfunctionalperformancearedecided.Qualitycontrolduringconstructionconsistslargelyofinsuringconformancetotheseoriginaldesignandplanningdecisions.

Whileconformancetoexistingdesigndecisionsistheprimaryfocusofqualitycontrol,theseareexceptionstothisrule.First,unforeseencircumstances,incorrectdesigndecisionsorchangesdesiredbyanownerinthefacilityfunctionmayrequirere-evaluationofdesigndecisionsduringthecourseofconstruction.Whilethesechangesmaybemotivatedbytheconcernforquality,theyrepresentoccasionsforre-designwithalltheattendantobjectivesandconstraints.Asasecondcase,somedesignsrelyuponinformedandappropriatedecisionmakingduringtheconstructionprocessitself.Forexample,sometunnelingmethodsmakedecisionsabouttheamountofshoringrequiredatdifferentlocationsbaseduponobservationofsoilconditionsduringthetunnelingprocess.Sincesuchdecisionsarebasedonbetterinformationconcerningactualsiteconditions,thefacilitydesignmaybemorecosteffectiveasaresult.Anyspecialcaseofre-designduringconstructionrequiresthevariousconsiderationsdiscussed.

Withtheattentiontoconformanceasthemeasureofqualityduringtheconstructionprocess,thespecificationofqualityrequirementsinthedesignandcontractdocumentationbecomesextremelyimportant.Qualityrequirementsshouldbeclearandverifiable,sothatallpartiesintheprojectcanunderstandtherequirementsforconformance.

Safetyduringtheconstructionprojectisalsoinfluencedinlargepartbydecisionsmadeduringtheplanninganddesignprocess.Somedesignsorconstructionplansareinherentlydifficultanddangeroustoimplement,whereasother,comparableplansmayconsiderablyreducethepossibilityofaccidents.Forexample,clearseparationoftrafficfromconstructionzonesduringroadwayrehabilitationcangreatlyreducethepossibilityofaccidentalcollisions.Beyondthesedesigndecisions,safetylargelydependsuponeducation,vigilanceandcooperationduringtheconstructionprocess.Workersshouldbeconstantlyalerttothepossibilitiesofaccidentsandavoidtakenunnecessaryrisks.

TotalQualityControl

Qualitycontrolinconstructiontypicallyinvolvesinsuringcompliancewithminimumstandardsofmaterialandworkmanshipinordertoinsuretheperformanceofthefacilityaccordingtothedesign.Theseminimumstandardsarecontainedinthespecifications.Forthepurposeofinsuringcompliance,randomsamplesandstatisticalmethodsarecommonlyusedasthebasisforacceptingorrejectingworkcompletedandbatchesofmaterials.Rejectionofabatchisbasedonnon-conformanceorviolationoftherelevantdesignspecifications.

Animplicitassumptioninthesetraditionalqualitycontrolpracticesisthenotionofanacceptablequalitylevelwhichisaallowablefractionofdefectiveitems.Materialsobtainedfromsuppliersorworkperformedbyanorganizationisinspectedandpassedasacceptableiftheestimateddefectivepercentageiswithintheacceptablequalitylevel.Problemswithmaterialsorgoodsarecorrectedafterdeliveryoftheproduct.

Incontrasttothistraditionalapproachofqualitycontrolisthegoaloftotalqualitycontrol.Inthissystem,nodefectiveitemsareallowedanywhereintheconstructionprocess.Whilethezerodefectsgoalcanneverbepermanentlyobtained,itprovidesagoalsothatanorganizationisneversatisfiedwithitsqualitycontrolprogramevenifdefectsarereducedbysubstantialamountsyearafteryear.ThisconceptandapproachtoqualitycontrolwasfirstdevelopedinmanufacturingfirmsinJapanandEurope,buthassincespreadtomanyconstructioncompanies.

Totalqualitycontrolisacommitmenttoqualityexpressedinallpartsofanorganizationandtypicallyinvolvesmanyelements.Designreviewstoinsuresafeandeffectiveconstructionproceduresareamajorelement.Otherelementsincludeextensivetrainingforpersonnel,shiftingtheresponsibilityfordetectingdefectsfromqualitycontrolinspectorstoworkers,andcontinuallymaintainingequipment.Workersinvolvementinimprovedqualitycontrolisoftenformalizedinqualitycirclesinwhichgroupsofworkersmeetregularlytomakesuggestionsforqualityimprovement.Materialsuppliersarealsorequiredtoinsurezerodefectsindeliveredgoods.Initially,allmaterialsfromasupplierareinspectedandbatchesofgoodswithanydefectiveitemsarereturned.Supplierswithgoodrecordscanbecertifiedandnotsubjecttocompleteinspectionsubsequently.

Thetraditionalmicroeconomicviewofqualitycontrolisthatthereisan“optimum”proportionofdefectiveitems.Tryingtoachievegreaterqualitythanthisoptimumwouldsubstantiallyincreasecostsofinspectionandreduceworkerproductivity.However,manycompanieshavefoundthatcommitmenttototalqualitycontrolhassubstantialeconomicbenefitsthathadbeenunappreciatedintraditionalapproaches.Expensesassociatedwithinventory,rework,scrapandwarrantieswerereduced.Workerenthusiasmandcommitmentimproved.Customersoftenappreciatedhigherqualityworkandwouldpayapremiumforgoodquality.Asaresult,improvedqualitycontrolbecameacompetitiveadvantages.

Ofcourse,totalqualitycontrolisdifficulttoapply,particularinconstruction.Theuniquenatureofeachfacility,thevariabilityintheworkforce,themultitudeofsubcontractorsandthecostofmarkingnecessaryinvestmentsineducationandproceduresmakeprogramsoftotalqualitycontrolinconstructiondifficult.Nevertheless,acommitmenttoimprovedqualityevenwithoutendorsingthegoalofzerodefectscanpayrealdividendstoorganizations.

Safety

Constructionisarelativelyhazardousundertaking.Thesearesignificantlymoreinjuriesandlostworkdaysduetoinjuriesorillnessesinconstructionthaninvirtuallyanyotherindustry.Theseworkrelatedinjuriesandillnessesareexceedinglycostly.TheConstructionIndustryCostEffectivenessProjectestimatedthataccidentscost$8.9billionornearlysevenpercentofthe$137billion（in1979dollars）spentannuallyforindustrial,utilityandcommercialconstructionintheUnitedStates.Includedinthistotalaredirectcosts（medicalcosts,premiumsforworkers’compensationbenefits,liabilityandpropertylosses）aswellasindirectcosts（reducedworkerproductivity,delaysinprojects,administrativetime,anddamagetoequipmentandthefacility）.Incontrasttomostindustrialaccidents,innocentbystandersmayalsobeinjuredbyconstructionhaveresultedinfatalitiestopasserby’s.Prudentprojectmanagersandownerswouldliketoreduceaccidents,injuriesandillnessesasmuchaspossible.

Aswithalltheothercostsofconstruction,itisamistakeforownerstoignoreasignificantcategoryofcostssuchasinjuryandillness.Whilecontractorsmaypayinsurancepremiumsdirectly,thesecostsarereflectedinbidpricesorcontractamounts.Delayscausedbyinjuriesandillnessescanpresentsignificantopportunitycoststoowners.Inthelongrun,theownersofconstructedfacilitiesmustpayallthecostsofconstruction.Forthecaseofinjuriesandillnesses,thisgeneralprinciplemightbeslightlyqualifiedsincesignificantcostsarebornebyworkersthemselvesorsocietyatlarge.However,courtjudgmentsandinsurancepaymentscompensateforindividuallossesandultimatelybornebytheowners.

Variousmeasuresareavailabletoimprovejobsitesafetyinconstruction.Severalofthemostimportantoccurbeforeconstructionisundertaken.Theseincludedesign,choiceoftechnologyandeducation.Byalteringfacilitydesigns,particularstructurescanbesaferormorehazardoustoconstruct.Forexample,parapetscanbedesignedtoappropriateheightsforconstructionworkersafety,ratherthantheminimumheightrequiredbybuildingcodes.

Choiceoftechnologycanalsobecriticalindeterminingthesafetyofajobsite.Safeguardsbuiltintomachinerycannotifyoperatorsofproblemsorpreventinjuries.Forexample,simpleswitchescanpreventequipmentfrombeingoperatingwhenprotectiveshieldsarenotinplace.Withtheavailabilityofon-boardelectronics（includingcomputerchips）andsensors,thepossibilitiesforsophisticatedmachinecontrollersandmonitorshasgreatlyexpandedforconstructionequipmentandtools.Materialandworkprocesschoicesalsoinfluencethesafetyofconstruction.Forexample,substitutionofalternativematerialforasbestoscanreduceoreliminatetheprospectsoflongtermillnessessuchasasbestosis.

Educatingworkersandmanagersinproperproceduresandhazardscanhaveadirectimpactonj