大二上语法知识整理Word格式.docx
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But:
Thesubjunctivehasonlytwoforms:
were,be(remnantsofOldEnglish)
(2)Theradicalview:
ThereisnomoodatallasagrammaticalcategoryoftheverbinEnglish.
Thepasttenseinunrealconditionalsisthehypotheticaluseofthepasttense.
wereusedtobetheregularpasttenseformof“be”.
beisthepresenttenseformofthesecondperson.
【Meaningsandusesofthebe-subjunctive】
1.Thebe-subjunctiveexpressesindirectimperatives(indirectcommand/decision/suggestion)inthethat-clausesafterwordsdenotingcommand,decision,suggestion,importance,necessity,etc.(includingverbs,nounsandadjectives).
例句:
Heorderedthatshecomebackwithoutdelay.
TheboardhasgiveninstructionsthattheagentflytoBoston.
Itisessentialthatallthefactsbeexaminedfirst.
Comparethefollowing:
a.Heorderedthatsheshouldcomebackwithoutdelay.
b.Heorderedhertocomebackwithoutdelay.
a.Theboardhasgiveninstructionsthattheagent
shouldflytoBoston.
b.Theboardhasgiveninstructionsfortheagenttofly
toBoston.
a.Itisessentialthatallthefactsshouldbeexaminedfirst.
b.Itisessentialforallthefactstobeexaminedfirst.
Herredfacesuggeststhatsheisangry.
Heinsistedthatshewaswrong.
Itisoddthathehasfailed/shouldhavefailedagain.
2.Thebe-subjunctiveexpresseshypotheticalimperatives(hypotheticalcondition/concession)inadverbialclausesintroducedbyif,though,whether,whatever,lest,solongas,etc.Thisuseofthebe-subjunctiveislimitedtoformalstyle.Ininformalstyletheindicativemoodor“should/may+infinitive”isusedinstead.
a.Iftherumorbetrue,everythingispossible.
b.Iftherumoristrue,everythingispossible.
a.Whateverbehisdefense,wecannottoleratehisdisloyalty.
b.Whateverhisdefensemaybe,wecannot
toleratehisdisloyalty.
a.Hehidhimselfinthebushlesthebeseen.
b.Hehidhimselfinthebushlestheshouldbeseen.
3.Thebe-subjunctiveexpressesimperativewishes,prayers,curses,etc.insomeformulaicexpressions.
LonglivethePeople’sRepublicofChina!
Farbeitfrommetospoilthefun.
Homeishome,beiteversohomely.
Behefriendorenemy,thelawregardshimascriminal.
Hewillremainhereifneedbe.
【Meaningsandusesofthewere-subjunctive】
1.Thewere-subjunctiveexpresseshypotheticalcondition,concessionandmannerinadverbialclausesintroducedbyif,ifonly,asif,asthough,etc.
2.Thewere-subjunctiveexpresseshypothesesinnominalclausesafterverbslikewish,wouldrather,suppose,imagine,etc.
Wereisreplacedbywasafterthethirdpersonsingularexceptinsomeformulaicexpressions
informalstyle.
WereItodoit,Ishouldtryadifferentway.
IfIwereyou,Iwouldbeveryhappy.
Heis,asitwere,awalkingdictionary.
Heismybestfriend,mysecondself,asitwere.
Wereisreplacedbytheindicativeinclauses
afterasif,asthough,suppose,imagine
forthesakeofexpressingdifferentmeanings.
Helooksasifhewere/issick.
Shetalksasthoughshewere/isanexpert.
IntheclausesafterItis(high)time(that)andIwouldrather(that),wasistobeusedEIt’stimehewashere.
I’dratherthathewasfarawayfromme.
VoiceoftheVerb
Definitions
Voiceisaformoftheverbwhichindicatesthesemanticrelationshipbetweenthesubjectandthepredicate.
VoiceisagrammaticalcategoryoftheEnglishverb,whichmirrorsthelanguageuser’sperspectiveonaneve
【FormsoftheVoices】
1.Theactive:
2.Thepassive:
(unmarked)(marked)
studybestudied
bestudyingbebeingstudied
havestudiedhavebeenstudied
havebeenstudyinghavebeenbeingstudied
1.Intermsofsemantics
Theactivevoiceindicatestheagent-actionrelationshipbetweenthesubjectandthepredicate,ortheactivesubject-predicaterelationshipforshort,whilethepassivevoiceindicatesthepatient-actionrelationshipbetweenthesubjectandthepredicate,orthepassivesubject-predicaterelationshipforshort.想XZ
【MeaningsoftheVoices】
Theactivevoiceindicatestheagent-actionrelationshipbetweenthesubjectandthepredicate,ortheactivesubject-predicaterelationshipforshort,whilethepassivevoiceindicatesthepatient-actionrelationshipbetweenthesubjectandthepredicate,orthepassivesubject-predicaterelationshipforshort.
2.Intermsofcognition
Theprototypicalactivevoiceconstruesthewholeprocessofaneventfromtheperspectiveoftheagent.Thepassivevoiceconstruesthewholeprocessofaneventfromtheperspectiveofthepatient.
【Usesofthevoices】
(1)asemanticapproach
Theactivevoiceisusedwhenthesubjectistheagentandthepassiveisusedwhenthesubjectisthepatient.Compare:
Theraindestroyedtheflowers.
Theflowersweredestroyedbytherain.
(2)acognitiveapproach
Perspective→Subject→Voice
agent→active
patient→passive
(prominenceofparticipantsintheevent)
Conventionalprominence
(Prominenceinconventionalcontext)
Agentbeingmoreprominentthanpatient
Unconventionalprominence
(Prominenceinunconventionalcontext)
Patientbeingmoreprominentthanagent
(3)apragmaticapproach
Context→Topic→Subject→Voice
participant
purpose
backgroundknowledge
commoninterest
giveninformation
Explainthefollowing:
Itrainedheavilylastnight.Theraindestroyed
theflowersinthegarden.
A:
Theflowersareallgone.Whathashappened
tothem?
B:
Theyweredestroyedbytherainlastnight.
Theprofessorwalkedontotheplatformandwas
warmlyapplaudedbytheaudience.
WhowroteTheTrueStoryofAhQ?
ItwaswrittenbyLuXun.
[Thepassiveisnotpossible:
]
1.whentheverbisintransitive:
Sincethen,greatchangeshavetakenplaceinthecountry.
Thegoodschangedhandsveryeasily.
Theylookedintotheholebutfoundnothing.
Theyarrivedattheirdestinationintime.
Compare:
Theproblemhasbeenlookedintobutsofarnoconclusionhasbeenarrivedat.
2.whentheverbdenotesastateofrelation:
Thedressfitsherverywell.
Theroomcanhold100people.
HehasalotofEnglishbooks.
Thelaboratoryisfittedwiththelatestequipment.
Themeetingistobeheldintheauditorium.
Thebookcanbehadatanybookstoreintown.
3.whentheverbtakesacognateobject:
Shedreamedanawfuldream.
LiuHunanlivedagreatlifeanddiedagloriousdeath.
Helooked(alookof)daggersatme.
Henodded(anodof)hisapproval.
Theywaved(awaveof)/kissed(akissof)good-bye.
4.whentheverbtakestheindefiniteitor
theformalitasitsobject:
Ifwemissthelastbus,we’llhavetofootithome.
LegendhasitthatthisiswheretheFoolishOldManremovedthemountain.
Iputittoyouthatheisstillachildunderten.
5.whentheverbtakesareflexiveor
reciprocalpronounasitsobject:
Helookedathimselfinthemirror.
Theylookedaftereachotherwhenthey
wereatcollege.
[[Thepassiveispreferred:
]]
1.whentheagentisunknown/indefinite:
Itissaid/believed/thoughtthat…
ThecompasswasinventedinChina.
2.whentheagentisknowntoall:
Thechildrenaretakengoodcareofintheschool.
Thethiefwascaughtonthespot.
RedFlagcarsaremadeinChina.
3.whenthespeakerdoesnotwanttomentiontheagent:
Aboutthismatter,muchhasbeensaidbutlittlehasbeendone.
Itisgenerallyconsideredimpropertospendsomuchtimeonsuchthings.
[[Thepassiveisdifferentfromtheactive:
]]
1.ininformationalstructure
Theyhavesofarbuiltonlyonehouse,nottwo.
Thehousewasbuiltbytheownerhimself,notbyanybodyelse.
2.inmodalityorientation
Hecanlifttheboxeasily.
→Theboxcanbeliftedbytheboyeasily.
JohniswillingtoteachMary.
→MaryiswillingtobetaughtbyJohn.
Theboydarenotdothejob.
→?
Thejobdarenotbedonebytheboy.
Differentverbformsexpressesdifferentmeanings.
Thefloorcleanswell.
Theflooriscleanedwell.
Thefloorhasbeencleanedwell.
Thefloorcanbecleanedwelleasily.
TenseoftheVerb
I.Timeandtense
Time:
auniversalconceptwhichinvolvessuchtermsaspresent,pastandfuture
Tense:
agrammaticalcategoryoftheverbwhichexistsinsomelanguagesandwhichdoesnotnecessarilycorrespondwiththetime
II.Tensesandtheirforms
fourtenses:
thepresenttense,thepasttense,
thefuturetense,thepastfuturetense
threetenses:
thefuturetense
twotenses:
thepresenttense,thepasttense
[[Futureandmeansofexpressingfuture]]
Future:
atimeinprediction,atimethat
hasnotbeenexperienced
Futureactions:
actionspredicted,
plannedorarrangedatpresent
Meansofexpressing(present)future:
present-tenseverbforms
Meansofexpressingpastfuture:
past-tenseverbforms
III.Meaningoftense
Thetraditionaldefinition:
Agrammaticalcategory
oftheverbwhichexpressesthe
timeoftheactiondenotedbytheverb.
Anewdefinition:
Aformoftheverbwhichindicates
thetimerelationshipbetweenthe
actionstateanditsreferencetime.
Actionstate:
stateinwhichthe