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1.3Designfeaturesoflanguage
Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.
1.3.1Arbitrariness
Arbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings.
1.3.2Duality
Dualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.
1.3.3Creativity
Creativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.
1.3.4Displacement
Displacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.
1.4Originoflanguage
1.Thebow-wowtheory
Inprimitivetimespeopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironmenttheylivedandspeechdevelopedfromthat.
2.Thepooh-poohtheory
Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyutterinstinctivesoundsofpains,angerandjoywhichgraduallydevelopedintolanguage.
3.The“yo-he-ho”theory
Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgruntswhichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguage.
1.5Functionsoflanguage
AsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions:
1.Referential:
toconveymessageandinformation;
2.Poetic:
toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake;
3.Emotive:
toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions;
4.Conative:
topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties;
5.Phatic:
toestablishcommunionwithothers;
6.Metalingual:
toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings.
Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:
1.Ideationalfunction:
toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;
2.Interpersonalfunction:
embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;
3.Textualfunction:
referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.
AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:
1.5.1Informative
Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.
1.5.2Interpersonalfunction
Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.
1.5.3Performative
Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.
1.5.4Emotivefunction
Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.
1.5.5Phaticcommunion
Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.
1.5.6Recreationalfunction
Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.
1.5.7Metalingualfunction
Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.
1.6Whatislinguistics?
Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.
1.7Mainbranchesoflinguistics
1.7.1Phonetics
Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:
articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.
1.7.2Phonology
Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.
1.7.3Morphology
Morphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses.
1.7.4Syntax
Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.
1.7.5Semantics
Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.
1.7.6Pragmatics
Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.
1.8Macrolinguistics
Macrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguistics,whichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.
1.8.1Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.
1.8.2Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.
1.8.3Anthropologicallinguistics
Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureinacommunity.
1.8.4Computationallinguistics
Computationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.
1.9Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics
1.9.1Descriptivevs.prescriptive
Tosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.
Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.
Forexample,“Don’tsayX.”isaprescriptivecommand;
“Peopledon’tsayX.”isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription.
1.9.2Synchronicvs.diachronic
Asynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.
1.9.3Langue&
parole
Saussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;
langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.
1.9.4Competenceandperformance
AccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.
1.9.5Eticvs.emic
[Thesetwotermsarestillveryvaguetome.AfterIreadJiDaohong’sbook,Icanunderstandthembetter,butbecausetheyarevaguelymentionedinHu’sbook,itseemsverydifficultformetounderstandthemfully.–icywarmtea]
Beingeticmeansresearchers’makingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviorallyandinconsequential,differentiations,justasoftenthecasewithphoneticsvs.phonemicsanalysisinlinguisticsproper.
Anemics