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1.Introduction
Despiteavastliteratureonthecapitalstructureofthefirm(seeHarrisandRaviv,1991,GrahamandHarvey,2001,Bravetal.,2005,foroverviews)therestillisabiggapbetweentheoryandpractice(seee.g.Cools,1993,Tempelaar,1991,Boot&
Cools,1997).StartingwiththeseminalworkbyModigliani&
Miller(1958,1963),muchattentionhasbeenpaidtotheoptimalityofcapitalstructurefromtheshareholders’pointofview.
Overthelastfewdecadesstudieshavebeenproducedontheeffectofotherstakeholders’interestsoncapitalstructure.Well-knownexamplesaretheinterestsofcustomerswhoreceiveproductorserviceguaranteesfromthecompany(seee.g.Grinblatt&
Titman,2002).Anotherareathathasreceivedconsiderableattentionistherelationbetweenmanagerialincentivesandcapitalstructure(Ibid.).Furthermore,theissueofcorporatecontrol2(seeJensen&
Ruback,1983)and,related,theissueofcorporategovernance3(seeShleifer&
Vishney,1997),receivealion’spartofthemorerecentacademicattentionforcapitalstructuredecisions.
Fromallthesestudies,onethingisclear:
Thecapitalstructuredecision(orrather,themanagementofthecapitalstructureovertime)involvesmoreissuesthanthemaximizationofthefirm’smarketvaluealone.Inthispaper,wegiveanoverviewofthedifferentobjectivesandconsiderationsthathavebeenproposedintheliterature.Wemakeadistinctionbetweentwobroadlydefinedsituations.Thefirstisthetraditionalcaseofthefirmthatstrivesforthemaximizationofthevalueofthesharesforthecurrentshareholders.Wheneverotherconsiderationsthanvaluemaximizationentercapitalstructuredecisions,theseconsiderationshavetobeinstrumentaltothegoalofvaluemaximization.Thesecondcaseconcernsthefirmthatexplicitlychoosesformoreobjectivesthanvaluemaximizationalone.Thismaybebecausetheshareholdersadoptamultiplestakeholdersapproachorbecauseofadifferentownershipstructurethantheusualcorporatestructuredominatingfinanceliterature.Anexampleofthelatteristheco-operation,alegalentitywhichcanbefoundina.o.manyEuropeancountries.Foradiscussiononwhyfirmsarefacingmultiplegoals,werefertoHallerbachandSpronk(2002a,2002b).
InSection2wewilldescribeobjectivesandconsiderationsthat,directlyorindirectly,clearlyhelptocreateandmaintainacapitalstructurewhichis'
optimal'
forthevaluemaximizingfirm.Thethirdsectiondescribesotherobjectivesandconsiderations.Someofthesemayhaveaclearnegativeeffectoneconomicvalue,othersmaybeneutralandinsomecasestheeffectoneconomicvalueisnotalwayscompletelyclear.Section4showshow,forbothcases,capitalstructuredecisionscanbeframedasmultiplecriteriadecisionproblemswhichcanthenbenefitfrommultiplecriteriadecisionsupporttoolsthatarenowwidelyavailable.
2.Maximizingshareholdervalue
Accordingtotheneoclassicalviewontheroleofthefirm,thefirmhasonesingleobjective:
maximizationofshareholdervalue.Shareholderspossessthepropertyrightsofthefirmandarethusentitledtodecidewhatthefirmshouldaimfor.Sinceshareholdersonlyhaveone
objectiveinmind-wealthmaximization-thegoalofthefirmismaximizationofthefirm'
scontributiontothefinancialwealthofitsshareholders.Thefirmcanaccomplishthisbyinvestinginprojectswithpositivenetpresentvalue4.Partofshareholdervalueisdeterminedbythecorporatefinancingdecision5.Twotheoriesaboutthecapitalstructureofthefirm-thetrade-offtheoryandthepeckingordertheory-assumeshareholderwealthmaximizationastheoneandonlycorporateobjective.Wewilldiscussboththeoriesincludingseveralmarketvaluerelatedextensions.Basedonthisdiscussionweformulatealistofcriteriathatisrelevantforthecorporatefinancingdecisioninthisessentiallyneoclassicalview.
TheoriginalpropositionIofMillerandModigliani(1958)statesthatinaperfectcapitalmarkettheequilibriummarketvalueofafirmisindependentofitscapitalstructure,i.e.thedebt-equityratio6.IfpropositionIdoesnotholdthenarbitragewilltakeplace.Investorswill
buysharesoftheundervaluedfirmandsellsharesoftheovervaluedsharesinsuchawaythatidenticalincomestreamsareobtained.Asinvestorsexploitthesearbitrageopportunities,thepriceoftheovervaluedshareswillfallandthatoftheundervaluedshareswillrise,untilbothpricesareequal.
Whencorporatetaxesareintroduced,propositionIchangesdramatically.MillerandModigliani(1958,1963)showthatinaworldwithcorporatetaxthevalueoffirmsisa.o.afunctionofleverage.Wheninterestpaymentsbecometaxdeductibleandpaymentstoshareholdersarenot,thecapitalstructurethatmaximizesfirmvalueinvolvesahundredpercentdebtfinancing.Byincreasingleverage,thepaymentstothegovernmentarereducedwithahighercashflowfortheprovidersofcapitalasaresult.Thedifferencebetweenthepresentvalueofthetaxespaidbyanunleveredfirm(G)andanidenticalleveredfirm(G)isul
thepresentvalueoftaxshields(PVTS).Figure1depictsthetotalvalueofanunleveredandaleveredfirm7.Thehigherleverage,thelowerG,thehigherG-G(=PVTS).lul
Inthetraditionaltrade-offmodelsofoptimalcapitalstructureitisassumedthatfirmsbalancethemarginalpresentvalueofinteresttaxshields8againstmarginaldirectcostsoffinancialdistressordirectbankruptcycosts.9Additionalfactorscanbeincludedinthistrade-offframework.Othercoststhandirectcostsoffinancialdistressareagencycostsofdebt
(Jensen&
Meckling,1976).Oftencitedexamplesofagencycostsofdebtaretheunderinvestmentproblem(Myers,1977)10,theassetsubstitutionproblem(Jensen&
Meckling,1976andGalai&
Masulis,1976),the'
playfortime'
gamebymanagers,the'
unexpectedincreaseofleverage(combinedwithanequivalentpayouttostockholderstomaketoincreasetheimpact)'
the'
refusaltocontributeequitycapital'
andthe'
cashinandrun'
game(Brealey,Myers&
Allan,2006).Theseproblemsarecausedbythedifferenceofinterestbetweenequityanddebtholdersandcouldbeseenaspartoftheindirectcostsoffinancialdistress.Another
benefitofdebtisthereductionofagencycostsbetweenmanagersandexternalequity(JensenandMeckling,1976,Jensen,1986,1989).JensenenMeckling(1976)arguethatdebt,byallowinglargermanagerialresidualclaimsbecausetheneedforexternalequityisreducedbytheuseofdebt,increasesmanagerialefforttowork.Inaddition,Jensen(1986)arguesthathighleveragereducesfreecashwithlessresourcestowasteonunprofitableinvestmentsasaresult.11Theagencycostsbetweenmanagementandexternalequityareoftenleftoutthetrade-offtheorysinceitassumesmanagersnotactingonbehalfoftheshareholders(only)
whichisanassumptionofthetraditionaltrade-offtheory.
InMyers'
(1984)andMyersandMajluf'
s(1984)peckingordermodel12thereisnooptimalcapitalstructure.Instead,becauseofasymmetricinformationandsignallingproblemsassociatedwithexternalfinancing13,firm'
sfinancingpoliciesfollowahierarchy,withapreferenceforinternaloverexternalfinance,andfordebtoverequity.Astrictinterpretationofthismodelsuggeststhatfirmsdonotaimatatargetdebtratio.Instead,thedebtratioisjustthecumulativeresultofhierarchicalfinancingovertime.(SeeShyum-Sunder&
Myers,1999.)OriginalexamplesofsignallingmodelsarethemodelsofRoss(1977)andLelandandPyle(1977).Ross(1977)suggeststhathigherfinancialleveragecanbeusedbymanagerstosignalanoptimisticfutureforthefirmandthatthesesignalscannotbemimickedbyunsuccessfulfirms14.LelandandPyle(1977)focusonownersinsteadofmanagers.Theyassumethatentrepreneurshavebetterinformationontheexpectedcashflowsthanoutsidershave.Theinsideinformationheldbyanentrepreneurcanbetransferredtosuppliersofcapitalbecauseitisintheowner'
sinteresttoinvestagreaterfractionofhiswealthinsuccessfulprojects.Thustheowner'
swillingnesstoinvestinhisownprojectscanserveasasignalofprojectquality.Thevalueofthefirmincreaseswiththepercentageofequityheldbytheentrepreneurrelativetothepercentagehewouldhaveheldincaseofalowerqualityproject.(Copeland,Weston&
Shastri,2005.)
ThestakeholdertheoryformulatedbyGrinblatt&
Titman(2002)15suggeststhatthewayinwhichafirmanditsnon-financialstakeholdersinteractisanimportantdeterminantofthe
firm'
soptimalcapitalstructure.Non-financialstakeholdersarethosepartiesotherthanthedebtandequityholders.Non-financialstakeholdersincludefirm'
scustomers,employees,suppliersandtheoverallcommunityinwhichthefirmoperates.Thesestakeholderscanbehurtbyafirm'
sfinancialdifficulties.Forexamplecustomersmayreceiveinferiorproductsthataredifficulttoservice,suppliersmaylosebusiness,employeesmaylosejobsandtheeconomycanbedisrupted.Becauseofthecoststheypotentiallybearintheeventofafirm'
sfinancialdistress,non-financialstakeholderswillbelessinterestedceterisparibusindoingbusinesswithafirmhavingahigh(er)potentialforfinancialdifficulties.Thisunderstandablereluctancetodobusinesswithadistressedfirmcreatesacostthatcandeterafirmfromundertakingexcessivedebtfinancingevenwhenlendersarewillingtoprovideitonfavorableterms(Ibid.,p.598).Theseconsiderationsbynon-financialstakeholdersarethecauseoftheir