戴炜栋重点文档格式.docx

戴炜栋重点文档格式.docx

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aimstodescribeandanalyzetheLpeopleactuallyuse.

②Synchronicvs.Diachronic

Synchronicstudy:

thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime.

eg.thestudyofthekindofEnglishusedduringShakespeare’stime.

Diachronicstudy:

thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.

eg.studythechangeinthesoundsystemofEnglishfromOldEnglishtoModernEnglish.

Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Itisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionofalanguageinitscurrentexistence,somostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.

③Speechandwriting

Speechispriortowriting.

a.fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,thewritingsystemoflanguageisalways’invented’byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.

b.ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.

c.speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.

d.formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeech,thusitwasregardedasauthentic,whilewrittenlanguageisonlythe‘revised’recordofspeech.

HowisSaussure’distinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?

④Langueandparole

ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSaussure（sociologicalview）

a.Langue:

referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity

Parole:

referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse

b.InSaussureopinion,paroleissimplyamassoflinguisticfacts,toovariedandconfusingforsystematicinvestigation,andwhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,ie.Todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

⑤Competenceandperformance

ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky（psychologicalview）

a.Competence:

theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage

Performance:

theactualrealizationofknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.

b.SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinksthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’scompetence,nothisperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.Althoughaspeakerpossessaninternalizedsetofrulesandappliestheminactualuse,hecannottellexactlywhattheserulesare.Sothetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifytheserules.

⑥Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics

Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways:

a.linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.

b.ModernlinguisticsregardsthespokenLasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammariansemphasizetheimportanceofthewrittenword.

c.ModernlinguisticsdoesnotforceLsintoaLatin-basedframework,whiletotraditionalgrammar,LatinprovidedauniversalframeworkintowhichallLsfit.Asaresult,otherLswereforcedtofitintoLatinpatternsandcategories,esp.itscasesystemandtensedivisionsofpast,presentandfuture.

★3.Thepropertiesoflanguage

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

①languageisasystem:

ie.elementsofLarecombinedtogetheraccordingtorules.

②languageisarbitrarymeansthatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor.

③languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound

④symbols:

languageisexpressedbyliteralforms.

⑤languageishuman-specific,ie.itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess.

4.Designfeaturesoflanguage:

thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.（proposedbyCharlesHockett.）

①Arbitrariness（任意性）[oneofthemajordesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage.+concept]

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.

Exceptonomatopoeicwordsandsomecompoundwordsthatarenotentirelyarbitrary.eg.whilephotoandcopyarebotharbitrary,thecompoundphotocopyisnotentirelyarbitrary.

②Productivity（能产性，创造性）

Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.（Creativityoropen-endedness）

Animalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestricted:

eg.Gibboncalls:

gibbondrawtheircallsfromalimitedrepertoire,whichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.

Beedancingisusedonlytoindicatefoodsources,whichistheonlykindofmessagethatcanbesentthroughthedancing.

③★★Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.

Atthelowerlevel,thereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargernumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Thentheunitsatthehigherlevelcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.Thedualityofstructureenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.

④★★Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）

Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

Itisnotrestrictedbythe‘here’and‘now’asanimalcommunication.Wecantalkaboutanythingwewant,includingwhathappenedinthepast,whatisgoingtohappeninthefuture,whatisnotexistentintheimmediatesurroundingsandevenwhatweimage.

⑤Culturaltransition（文化传递性）

Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,ie.everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.

⑥Discreteness（可分离性）（2011复试笔试考过）

Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.

Thecommunicationsystemconsistsofisolatable,repeatableunits.

⑦Recursiveness（递归性）（2011复试笔试考过）

Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences.

5.Functionsoflanguage

①Thedescriptivefunction,alsoreferredtothecognitive,orreferential,orpropositionalfunction.Itisthefunctiontoconveyfactualinfo.eg.“TheSichuanearthquakeisthemostseriousoneChinahaseversuffered.”

②Theexpressivefunction,alsocalledtheemotiveorattitudinalfunction,suppliesinfoabouttheuser’sfeelings,preferences,prejudices,andvalues.eg.“IwillnevergocampingwiththeSimpsonsagain.”

③Thesocialfunction,alsoreferredastheinterpersonalfunction,servestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.eg.“HowcanIhelpyou,Sir?

6.Halliday

Interpersonalcommunication:

conveyinformation,thoughts,feelingsfromonetoanother

Intrapersonalcommunication:

languagefacilitatesthinking,speechbehavior,andactionfortheindividual

①Theideationalfunctionistoorganizethespeakerorwriter’sexperienceoftherealorimaginaryworld.

②Theinterpersonalfunctionistoindicate,establishormaintainsocialrelationshipsbetweenpeople.

③Thetextualfunctionistoorganizewrittenorspokentextsinsuchamannerthattheyarecoherentwiththemselvesandfittheparticularsituationinwhichtheyareused.

7.SixelementsofaspeecheventJakobson

a.Addresser---Emotive

Theaddresserexpresseshisattitudetothetopicorsituationofcommunication,eg.“Ihatewhateverwheyareplanningforme!

”

b.Addressee—Conative意动的

Theaddresseraimstoinfluencetheaddressee’scourseofactionorwaysofthinking,eg.“Whynotgoandseeanotherdoctor?

c.Context---Referential

Theaddresserconveysamessageofinfo,eg.“AsfarasIknow,theearth’sresourcesarebeingastonishinglywasted.”

d.Message---Poetic

Theaddresseruseslanguagesforthesolopurposeofdisplayingthebeautyoflanguageitself,eg.poetry

e.Contact---Phaticcommunion交际性谈话

Theaddressertriestoestablishormaintaingoodinterpersonalrelationshipswiththeaddressee,eg.“Hi!

Howareyouthismorning?

f.Code---Metalinguistic元语言的

Theaddresseruseslanguagetomakeclearthemeaningoflanguageitself,eg.“Letmetellyouwhattheword‘anorexia’means."

Chapter2Phonology

8.Phonologyvs.Phonetics

Bothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds,buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.

Phoneticsisofageneralnature;

itisinterestedinallhuman