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的学习来获得。
1.2.3FunctionofIanguage
(descriptivefunction/expressivefunction/socialfunction)
informative信息功能/interpersonal人际功能/performative施为功能
/emotive感情功能/phaticcommunication寒暄功能/recreational娱乐功能
/metalinguistic元语言功能
Chapter2Phonology音系学
2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage语言的声音媒介
2.2Phonetics语音学
2.2.1Whatisphonetics?
什么是语音学?
★PhoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumofIanguage;
itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'
Ianguages.
研究语言的产生
研究语言怎
articulatoryphonetics发音语音学
threepointsofview<
auditoryphonetics听觉语音学
acousticphonetics
声学语音研究语音的物理
样被感知
属性
2.2.2Ogansofspeech发音器官
rthepharyngealcavity-thethroat咽H空
‘theoralcavity-themouth口腔
thenasalcavity-thenose鼻腔
2.2.3Roadandnarrowtranscriptions宽式和窄式音标
★TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA国际音标)---DanielJones
---1888
2.3Phonology音系学
2.3.1Phonologyandphonetics音系学和语音学
★PhonologyisthestudyabouthowspeechsoundinaIanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.
★PhoneticsisthescientificstudyofthephonicmediumofIanguage;
phonology
研究抽象的音位类型与规则---
itisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds.
Differences:
[l]inleap&
peel
研究具体发音部位与方式---不同
phonetics
2.3.2Phone,phonene,andallophone音素、音位和音位变体
(1)音素:
是语音学研究的单位,是一个个具体的声音。
“]”
(2)音位:
是音系学研究的单位,是抽象的概念,每一个音位是一组语音特征
的集合体,音位具有区别意义的作用。
“7”
(3)音位变体:
是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现,同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体,也就是语音。
[]
2.3.3Phonemhccontrast,co叩Iementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立,互补分布,最小对立体
(1)音位对立:
两个音位出现在相同的语音环境中,且具有区别语义的功能。
例:
tip和dip中的/t/和/d/;
rope和robe中的/p/和/b/
(2)互补分布:
同一音位不同音位变体之间的关系,且没有区别意义的功能。
top中送气的[th]和stop中不送气的[t]
(3)最小对立体:
出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。
bill和pill(辅音),bet和but(元音)
2.3.4Somerulesinphonology音系学规则
2.3.4.1
Sequentialrules
丿予列规则
三辅音连缀规则:
/s/---/p/,/t/,/k/---/l/,/r/,/w/
2.3.4.2
Assimilationrule
同化规则
2.3.4.3
Deletionrule
省略规则:
[g]
2.3.59uprasegmentalfeatures超音段特征
2.3.5.1Stress重读
235.2Tone音调/声调
2.3.5.3Intonation语调
Chapter3M)rphology形态学
3.1Introduction
★Morphologyisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure.形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则
3.2Openclassandclosedclass
(1)Openclasswords开放词类:
contentwords实词---nouns,verbs,adjectives...
(2)Closedclasswords圭寸闭词类:
functionwords虚词---conjunctions,
articles...
3.3Morphemes——theminimalunitsofmeaning
词素一一最小的“语义”单位
(reader是一个单词,read和er是两个词素/boys是一个单词,boy和s是两个词素)
(1)Freeandboundmorphemes自由词素和黏着词素
1自由词素有完整语义女口:
book;
helpful中的help
2黏着词素一一词根、词缀
⑵Allomorphs词素变体
女口:
①a放在辅音前;
an放在元音前
②books,bags,judges中的s三种不同的读音
3.4Analyzingwordstructures
rootsandaffixes(prefix,infix,suffix)
3.5Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes
(1)derivationalmorphemes派生词素:
构成新单词如如:
-ate,inter-,
-ism...
⑵inflectionalmorphemes曲折词素:
改变数、时、格、级如口:
-s,-ed,
-er,-est...
prefix
I曲折词素inflectional~
3.6Morphologicalrulesofwordformation
3.7Derivation派生词
3.8C□叩ounds复合词
3.8.1Definition
★Acompoundwordismadewhentwowordsarejoinedtoformanewword.
3.8.2复合词特征:
(1)Orthographically书写特征:
inthreeways:
solid(airmail);
hyphenated(air-conditioning);
open(air
force,airraid)
⑵Syntactically句法特征:
复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性
(3)Semantically语义特征:
复合词的意义具有习语性质,许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和
⑷Phonetically语音特征:
复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上
Chapter4Syntax句法学
4.1Whatissyntax?
★Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.
4.2Categories
4.2.1Weird-levelcategories
(1)majorlexicalcategories:
n.v.a.prep.
(2)minorlexicalcategories:
determiner(Det限定词)一the,a,this,
those...
degreewords
.(Deg程度词)
—quite,so,
more...
qualifier
I(Qual频率词)一
often,always,
almost...
auxiliary
(Aux助动词)一
must,should,
can...
conjunction
(Con连接词)-
—and,but,or..
4.2.2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures
(1)[NP]theprettygirl/[VP]oftendream/[AP]verypessimistic
(2)head中心语;
specifier标志语;
complement补足语
4.3Phrasestructurerule
5.
Complement
3.1XPrule
SpecifierX
Head
(thegirlintheroom)
4.3.2COordinationrule:
X►XCon(连词)X
4.4Phraseelements
4.4.1Specifiers标志语
Specifiers
Heads
Examples
determiner
N
thetree,nowater,thisbook...
V
alwaysfail,oftendrink,never
leave...
degreeword
A
lessboring,quitegood,very
sensitive...
P
almostin,quiteabove...
4.4.2Complenents补足语
CP
Items
As
Adjectives
afraid,
aware
Iwasafraidthatnobodywouldbelieveme
Ns
Nouns
fact,belief
Shecan'
tbelievethefactthatshewouldfail.
Ps
Prepositio
ns
over,about
Theyarguedoverwhethershehadcometoclass.
4.4.3Mbdifiers
Modifier
Position
Example
AP
precedesthehead
averycarefulgirl
PP
followsthehead
openwithcare
AdvP
precedesorfollowsthehead
readcarefully;
carefully
read
4.5Sentences(TheSRjle)
4.6Transformations
4.6.1Auxiliarymovenent助动词移位
4.6.2Dbinsertion
4.6.3Deepstructureandsurfacestructure(thegenerativeapproach生成学派)
(1)深层结构deepstructure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlyinglevel(移位还没有发生的原始形态):
Thetrainwillarrive.
(2)表层结构surfacestructure指结构形成的最后结果阶段finalstage(移位后的新形态):
Willthetrainarrive?
(3)结构:
TheXPRule
DeepStructure
Transformation
SurfaceStructure
4.6.4WMovement
4.6.5Mhveaandconstraintsontransformation
Chapter5Semantics语义学
5.1Whatissemantics
★Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.
5.2Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning
5.2.1Thenanringtheory指称论
(1)Plato
(2)ThewordsusedinaIanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectsthey
standfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.
(3)Limitations:
①applicabletonounsonly;
②抽象名词(ghost,joy,
impulse..)
5.2.2Theconceptualistview观念论
(1)OgdenandRichards
(2)Thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefers
to.
(3)semantictriangle语义三角:
Thought/Referenee
(能指:
概念)
Symbol/Form
Referent
(词和语素)
(所指:
物体)
4.2.3COntextualism语境论
⑴J.R.Firth,Malinowski,Wittgenstein
(2)Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context---elementscloselylinkedwithIanguagebehaviour.
6.2.4Behaviorism行为论
(1)Bloomfield,JackandJill
(2)
刺激-反应理论
TheStimulus-ResponseTheory(S-R)
5.3Lexicalmeaning词汇意义
5.3.1Senseandreferenee系统意义与指称意义
(1)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,
thecollectionofallitsfeatures.(抽象;
脱离语境)
如:
dog
(2)Refereneemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physical
world;
itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementand
thenon-linguisticworldofexperienee.(具体)
Thedogisbarking.
(3)Limitation:
eveningstar(启明星)andmorningstar(长庚星)是同一
颗星。
5.3.2Mhjorsenserelations主要的语义关系
5.3.2.1Synonymy同义关系
(1)Dialectalsynonyms-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.
地域同义词
如:
秋天(autumn/fall);
公寓(flat/apartment)...
⑵
Stylisticsynonyms-synonymsdifferinginstyle.文体同义词
daddy,dad,father,maleparent,oldman...
(3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.感情
同义词
collaborator/accomplice均指合作者,但前者为“合作伙伴”,后者为
“同谋”
(4)Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词
指“坏的食物”rottentomatoes,addledeggs,rancidbaconor
butter...
(5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms意思非常相近的同义词
amaze/astound
5.322Polysemy多义关系---一词多义
5.323Homonymy---thesameform,butdifferentmeaning同音同形异
义关系
(1)Homophones:
night/knight;
piece/peace...
(2)Homographs:
bow-v./n.;
tear-v./n.…
(3)Completehomonyms:
fast-adj./v.;
scale-n./v....
5.3.2.4Hyponymy上下义关系
(1)Superordinate上义
flower,animal...
(2)Hyponymy下义
(flower)rose,lily...;
(animal)dog,cat...
5.3.2.5Antonymy反义关系
(1)Gradableantonymy分等级的反义关系
cool-warm;
hot-cold...
(2)Complementaryantonyms互补反义词
dead-alive;
male-female...
(3)Relationalopposites关系反义词
husband-wife;
father-son...
5.4Senserelationsbetweensentences
(1)XissynonymouswithY.
X:
Hewasabachelorallhislife.
Y:
Henevermarriedallhislife.
(2)XisinconsistentwithY.
X:
Johnismarried.
Johnisabachelor.
(3)XentailsY.(YisandentailmentofX)衍推