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PastoralisminAncientInnerEurasia古代内欧的畜牧
Pastoralismisalifestyleinwhicheconomicactivityisbasedprimarilyonlivestock.Archaeologicalevidencesuggeststhatby3000B.C.,andperhapsevenearlier,therehademergedonthesteppesofInnerEurasiathedistinctivetypesofpastoralismthatweretodominatetheregion'
shistoryforseveralmillennia.Here,thehorsewasalreadybecomingtheanimalofprestigeinmanyregions,thoughsheep,goats,andcattlecouldalsoplayavitalrole.ItistheuseofhorsesfortransportationandwarfarethatexplainswhyInnerEurasianpastoralismprovedthemostmobileandthemostmilitaristicofallmajorformsofpastoralism.TheemergenceandspreadofpastoralismhadaprofoundimpactonthehistoryofInnerEurasia,andalso,indirectly,onthepartsofAsiaandEuropejustoutsidethisarea.Inparticular,pastoralismfavorsamobilelifestyle,andthismobilityhelpstoexplaintheimpactofpastoralistsocietiesonthispartoftheworld.
Themobilityofpastoralistsocietiesreflectstheirdependenceonanimal-basedfoods.Whileagriculturalistsrelyondomesticatedplants,pastoralistsrelyondomesticatedanimals.Asaresult,pastoralists,likecarnivoresingeneral,occupyahigherpositiononthefoodchain.Allelsebeingequal,thismeanstheymustexploitlargerareasoflandthandoagriculturaliststosecurethesameamountoffood,clothing,andothernecessities.Sopastoralismisamoreextensivelifewaythanfarmingis.However,thelargertheterrainusedtosupportagroup,theharderitistoexploitthatterrainwhileremaininginoneplace.So,basicecologicalprinciplesimplyastrongtendencywithinpastoralistlifewaystowardnomadism（amobilelifestyle）.AsthearchaeologistRogerCribbputsit,'
Thegreaterthedegreeofpastoralism,thestrongerthetendencytowardnomadism.'
AmodernTurkicnomadinterviewedbyCribbcommented:
"
Themoreanimalsyouhave,thefartheryouhavetomove.
Nomadismhasfurtherconsequences.Itmeansthatpastoralistsocietiesoccupyandcaninfluenceverylargeterritories.ThisisparticularlytrueofthehorsepastoralismthatemergedintheInnerEurasiansteppes,forthiswasthemostmobileofallmajorformsofpastoralismSo,itisnoaccidentthatwiththeappearanceofpastoralistsocietiesthereappearlargeareasthatsharesimilarcultural,ecological,andevenlinguisticfeatures.BythelatefourthmillenniumB.C.,thereisalreadyevidenceoflargeculturezonesreachingfromEastemEuropetothewesternbordersofMongolia.PerhapsthemoststrikingsignofmobilityisthefactthatbythethirdmillenniumB.C.,mostpastoralistsinthishugeregionspokerelatedlanguagesancestraltothemodemIndo-Europeanlanguages.
Theremarkablemobilityandrangeofpastoralsocietiesexplain,inpart,whysomanylinguistshavearguedthattheIndo-EuropeanlanguagesbegantheirastonishingexpansionistcareernotamongfarmersinAnatolia（present-dayTurkey）,butamongearlypastoralistsfromInnerEurasia.SuchtheoriesimplythattheIndo-EuropeanlanguagesevolvednotinNeolithic（10,000to3,000B.C.）Anatolia,butamongtheforagingcommunitiesoftheculturesintheregionoftheDonandDnieperrivers,whichtookupstockbreedingandbegantoexploittheneighboringsteppes.
Nomadismalsosubjectspastoralistcommunitiestostrictrulesofportability.Ifyouareconstantlyonthemove,youcannotaffordtoaccumulatelargematerialsurpluses.Suchruleslimitvariationsinaccumulatedmaterialgoodsbetweenpastoralisthouseholds（thoughtheymayalsoencourageatasteforportablegoodsofhighvaluesuchassilksorjewelry）.So,byandlarge,nomadismimpliesahighdegreeofself-sufficiencyandinhibitstheappearanceofanextensivedivisionoflabor.Inequalitiesofwealthandrankcertainlyexist,andhaveprobablyexistedinmostpastoralistsocieties,butexceptinperiodsofmilitaryconquest,theyarenormallytooslighttogeneratethestable,hereditaryhierarchiesthatareusuallyimpliedbytheuseofthetermclass.lnequalitiesofgenderhavealsoexistedinpastoralistsocieties,buttheyseemtohavebeensoftenedbytheabsenceofsteephierarchiesofwealthinmostcommunities,andalsobytherequirementthatwomenacquiremostoftheskillsofmen,including,often,theirmilitaryskills.
Paragraph1:
shistoryforseveralmillennia.Here,thehorsewasalreadybecomingtheanimalofprestigeinmanyregions,thoughsheep,goats,andcattlecouldalsoplayavitalrole.ItistheuseofhorsesfortransportationandwarfarethatexplainswhyInnerEurasianpastoralismprovedthemostmobileandthemostmilitaristicofallmajorforsofpastoralism.TheemergenceandspreadofpastoralismhadaprofoundimpactonthehistoryofInnerEurasia,andalso,indirectly,onthepartsofAsiaandEuropejustoutsidethisarea.Inparticular,pastoralismfavorsamobilelifestyle,andthismobilityhelpstoexplaintheimpactofpastoralistsocietiesonthispartoftheworld。
1.Theword“prestige”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto
○interest
○status
○demand
○profit
2.Accordingtoparagraph1,whatmadeitpossibleforInnerEurasianpastoralismtobecomethemostmobileandmilitaristicformofpastoralism?
○Itinvolvedthedomesticationofseveraltypesofanimals.
○Itwasbasedprimarilyonhorsesratherthanonotheranimals.
○ItborrowedandimproveduponEuropeanideasformobilityandwarfare.
○Itcouldbeadaptedtoawidevarietyofenvironments.
3.Theword"
profound”inthepassageisclosestinmeaningto
○strange
○positive
○direct
○far-reaching
Paragraph2:
Themobilityofpastoralistsocietiesreflectstheirdependenceonanimal-basedfoods.Whileagriculturalistsrelyondomesticatedplants,pastoralistsrelyondomesticatedanimals.Asaresult,pastoraksts,likecarnivoresingeneral,occupyahigherpositiononthefoodchain.Allelsebeingequal,thismeanstheymustexploitlargerareasoflandthandoagriculturaliststosecurethesameamountoffood,clothing,andothernecessities.Sopastoralismisamoreextensivelifewaythanfarmingis.However,thelargertheterrainusedtosupportagroup,theharderitistoexploitthatterrainwhileremaininginoneplace.So,basicecologicalprinciplesimplyastrongtendencywithinpastoralistlifewaystowardnomadism（amobilelifestyle）.AsthearchaeologistRogerCribbputsit,'
4.Inparagraph2,whydoestheauthorcontrastpastoralistswithagriculturalists?
○Toexplainwhypastoralismrequiresmorelandthanagriculturalismtosupportbasicneeds
○Toidentifysomeadvantagesthatmobilesocietieshaveoverimmobilesocieties
○Todemonstratethatecologicalprinciplesthatapplytopastoralismdonotapplytoagriculturalism
○Toarguethatagriculturalismeventuallydevelopedoutofpastoralism
5.Accordingtoparagraph2,pastoraliststendto
○prefergrazingtheiranimalsonagriculturallands
○consumecomparativelylargeamountsoffoodandclothing
○avoideatingplantfoods
○movefromplacetoplacefrequently
Paragraph3:
6.Inparagraph3,whydoestheauthordiscusslanguagesspokenintheregionspanningfromEasternEuropetothewestembordersofMongolia?
○ToemphasizethefrequencywithwhichIndo-Europeanlanguageschangedasaresultofthemobilenatureofpastoralism
○ToindicateonemethodlinguistsusetodeterminethatinhabitantsoftheDonandDnieperriverareahadtakenupstockbreeding
○ProvideevidencethatIndo-EuropeanlanguageshavetheirrootsinwhatisnowTurkey
○Toprovideevidence
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