市场营销原理外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献学士学位论文文档格式.docx

市场营销原理外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献学士学位论文文档格式.docx

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文献、资料来源：

著作

文献、资料发表（出版）日期：

2000.4

外文文献：

PrinciplesofMarketing

1.New-ProductPricingStrategies

Pricingstrategiesusuallychangeastheproductpassesthroughitslifecycle.Theintroductorystageisespeciallychallenging.Wecandistinguishbetweenpricingaproductthatimitatesexistingproductsandpricinganinnovativeproductthatispatentprotected.

Acompanythatplanstodevelopanimitativenewproductfacesaproduct-positioningproblem.Itmustdecidewheretopositiontheproductversuspositioningstrategies.First，thecompanymightdecidetouseapremiumpricingcompetingproductsintermsofqualityandprice.Figure17.1showsfourpossiblestrategy-producingahigh-qualityproductandchargingthehighestprice.Attheotherextreme，itmightdecideonaneconomypricingstrategy-producingalower-qualityproduct，butchargingalowprice.Thesestrategiescancoexistinthesamemarketaslongasthemarketconsistsofatleasttwogroupsofbuyers，thosewhoseekqualityandthosewhoseekprice.Thus，Tag-Heueroffersveryhigh-qualitysportswatchesathighprices，whereasCasiooffersdigitalwatchesatalmostthrowawayprices.

Companiesbringingoutaninnovative，patent-protectedproductfacethechallengeofsettingpricesforthefirsttime.Theycanchoosebetweentwostrat-egies：

market-shimmingpricingandmarket-penetrationpricing.

（1）Market-SkimmingPricing

Manycompaniesthatinventnewproductsinitiallysethighpricesto'

skim'

revenueslayerbylayerfromthemarket.Intelisaprimeuserofthisstrategy，calledmarket-skimmingpricing.WhenIntelfirstintroducesanewcomputerchip，itchargesthehighestpriceitcan，given，thebenefitsofthenewchipovercompetingchips.Itsetsapricethatmakesitjustworthwhileforsomesegmentsofthemarkettoadoptcomputerscontainingthechip.Asinitialsalesslowdownandascompetitorsthreatentointroducesimilarchips，Intellowersthepricetodrawinthenestprice-sensitivelayerofcustomers.

（2）Market-PenetrationPricing

Ratherthansettingahighinitialpricetoskimoffsmallbutprofitablemarketsegments，somecompaniesusemarket-penetrationpricing.Theysetalowinitialpriceinordertopenetratethemarketquicklyanddeeply-toattractalargenumberofbuyersquicklyandwinalargemarketshare.Thehighsalesvolumeresultsinfallingcosts，allowingthecompanytocutitspriceevenfurther.Forexample，DellandDanusedpenetrationpricingtosellhigh-qualitycomputerproductsthroughlower-costmail-orderchannels.TheirsalessoaredwhenIBM，Compaq，Appleandothercompetitorssellingthroughretailstorescouldnotmatchtheirprices.TheBankofScotlandandWinterthurofSwitzerlandusedtheirDirectLine，PrivilegeandChurchillsubsidiariestograbprofitsandshareinthemotorinsurancemarketbysellingdirecttoconsumersatmarket-penetratingprices.Thehighvolumeresultsinlowercoststhat，inturn，allowthediscounterstokeeppriceslow.

Severalconditionsfavoursettingalowprice.First，themarketmustbehighlypricesensitive，sothatalowpriceproducesmoremarketgrowth.Second，productionanddistributioncostsmustfallassalesvolumeincreases.Finally，thelowpricemusthelpkeepoutthecompetition-otherwisethepriceadvantagemayheonlytemporary.Forexample，DellfaceddifficulttimeswhenIBMandCompaqestablishedtheirowndirectdistributionchannels.

2.Product-MixPricingStrategies

Thestrategyforsettingaproduct'

spriceoftenhastohechangedwhentheproductispartofaproductmix.Inthiscase，thefirmlooksforasetofpricesthatmaximizestheprofitsonthetotalproductmix.Pricingisdifficultbecausethevariousproductshaverelateddemandandcosts，andfacedifferentdegreesofcompetition.

（1）ProductLinePricing

Companiesusuallydevelopproductlinesratherthansingleproducts.Forexample，Merloni'

ssellsIndesit，AristonandSeholtewithpriceand–statusascendinginthatorder.TherearcfullrangesofIndesittoAristonappliances，fromwashingmachinestofreezers，coveringthefirsttwopricehands，whileScholtesellsexpensivebuilt-inkitchenequipment.Kodakoffersnotjustonetypeoffilm，hutanassortmentincludingregularKodakfilm，higher-pricedKodakRoyalGoldfilmforspecialoccasions，andalower-priced，seasonalfilmcalledRuntimethatcompeteswithstorebrands.Eachofthesebrandsisavailableinavarietyofsizesandfilmspeeds.Inproductlinepricing，managementmustdecidionthepricestepstosetbetweenthevariousproductsinaline.

Thepricestepsshouldtakeintoaccountcostdifferencesbetweentheprod-uctsintheline，customerevaluationsoftheirdifferentfeaturesandcompetitors'

prices.Ifthepricedifferencebetweentwosuccessiveproductsissmall，buyerswillusuallybuythemoreadvancedproduct.Thiswillincreasecompanyprofitsifthecostdifferenceissmallerthanthepricedifference.Ifthepricedifferenceislarge，however，customerswillgenerallybuythelessadvancedproducts.

（2）Optional-ProductPricing

Manycompaniesuseoptional-produetpricing-offeringtoselloptionaloracces-soryproductsalongwiththeirmainproduct.Forexample，aearbuyermaychoosetoorderpowerwindows，cruisecontrolandaradiowithaCDplayer.Pricingtheseoptionsisastickyproblem.Carcompanieshavetodecidewhichitemstoincludeinthebasepriceandwhichtoofferasoptions.BMWsbasiccarscomefamouslyunderequipped.Typicallythe318iisaboutDM40，000，butthecustomerthenhastopayextraforaradio（pricesvary），electricwindows（DM700），sunroof（DM!

，800）andsecuritysystem（DM1，100）.Thebasicmodelisstrippedofsomanycomfortsandconveniencesthatmostbuyersrejectit.Thepayforextrasorbuyabetter-equippedversion.Morerecently，however，AmericanandEuropeancarmakershavebeenforcedtofollowtheexampleoftheJapanesecarmakersandincludeinthebasicpricemanyusefulitemspreviouslysoldonlyasoptions.Theadvertisedpricenowoftenrepresentsawell-equippedcar.

（3）CapLive-ProductPricing

Companiesthatmakeproductsthatmustbeusedalongwithamainproductareusingcaptive-productpricing.Examplesofcaptiveproductsarerazors，camerafilmandcomputersoftware.Producersofthemainproducts（razors，camerasandcomputers）oftenpricethemlowandsethighmark-upsonthesupplies.ThusPolaroidpricesitscameraslowbecauseitmakesitsmoneyonthefilmitsells.AndGillettesellslow-pricedrazors，butmakesmoneyonthereplacementblades.Cameramakersthatdonotsellfilmhavetopricetheirmainproductshigherinordertomakethesameoverallprofit.

（4）By-ProductPricing

Inproducingproeessedmeats，petroleumproducts，chemicalsandotherproducts，thereareoftenby-products.Iftheby-productshavenovalueandifgettingridofthemiscostly，thiswillaffectthepricingofthemainproduct.Usingby-productpricing，themanufacturerwillseekamarketfortheseby-productsandshouldacceptanypricethatcoversmorethanthecostofstoringanddelivering；

them.Thispracticeallowsthesellertoreducethemainproduct'

spricetomakeItmorecompetitive.By-productscaneventurnouttobeprofitable.Forexample，manylumbermillshavebeguntosellbarkchipsandsawdustprofitablyasdecorativemulchforhomeandcommerciallandscaping.

Sometimescompaniesdon'

trealizehowvaluabletheirby-productsare.Forexample，mostZoosdon'

trealizethatoneoftheirby-products–theiroccupants'

manure-canbeanexcellentsourceofadditionalrevenue.ButtheZoo-DooCompostCompanyhashelpedmanyzoosunderstandthecostsandopportunitiesinvolvedwiththeseby-products.Zoo-Dolicensesitsnametozoosandreceivesroyaltiesonmanuresales.'

Manyzoosdon'

tevenknowhowmuchmanuretheyareproducingorthecostofdisposingofit，'

explainspresidentandfounderFierceLedbetter.Zoosareoftensopleasedwithanysavingstheycanfindondisposalthattheydon'

tthinktomoveintoactiveby-productsales.However，salesofthefragrantby-productcanbesubstantial.Sofarnoveltysaleshavebeenthelargest，withtinycontainersofZooDoo（andeven'

Love，LoveMeDoo'

valentines）availablein160zoostoresand700additionalretailoutlets.Forthelong-termmarket，Zoo-Doolookstoorganicgardenerswhobuy15to70poundsofmanureatatime.ZooDooisalreadyplanninga'

DungoftheMonth'

clubtoreachtheselucrativeby-productmarkets.

（5）Product-BundlePricing

Using，product-bundlepricing，sellersoftencombineseveraloftheirproductsandofferthebundleatareducedprice.Thustheatresandsportsteamssellseasonticketsatlessthanthecostofsingletickets；

hotelssellspeciallypricedpackagesthatincluderoom，mealsandentertainment；

computermakersineludeattractivesofwarepackageswiththeirpersonalcomputers.Pricebundlingcanpromotethesalesofproductsthatconsumersmightnototherwisebuy，butthecombinedpricemustbelowenoughtogetthemtobuythebundle."

Inothercases，product-bundlepricingisusedtosellmorethanthecustomerreallywants.Obtainingatickettoanexclusivesportseventisdifficult，butWorldCupfootballfinalsticketsareavailabletopeoplewillingtobuythembundledwithasupersonicConcordeflight.

3.Price-AdjustmentStrategies

Companiesusuallyadjusttheirbasicpricestoaccountforvariouscustomerdifferencesandchangingsituations.Sevenprice-adjustmentstrategics：

discountandallowancepricing，segmentedpricing，psychologicalpricing，promotionalpricing，-valuepricing，geographicalpricingandinternationalpricing.

（1）DiscountandAllowancePri