市场营销原理外文翻译 外文文献 英文文献学士学位论文文档格式.docx

1、文献、资料来源：著作文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.4外文文献：Principles of Marketing1.New-Product Pricing StrategiesPricing strategies usually change as the product passes through its life cycle. The introductory stage is especially challenging. We can distinguish between pricing a product that imitates existing products and

2、 pricing an innovative product that is patent protected.A company that plans to develop an imitative new product faces a product-positioning problem. It must decide where to position the product versus positioning strategies. First， the company might decide to use a premium pricing competing product

3、s in terms of quality and price. Figure 17.1 shows four possible strategy - producing a high-quality product and charging the highest price. At the other extreme， it might decide on an economy pricing strategy - producing a lower-quality product， but charging a low price. These strategies can coexis

4、t in the same market as long as the market consists of at least two groups of buyers， those who seek quality and those who seek price. Thus， Tag-Heuer offers very high-quality sports watches at high prices， whereas Casio offers digital watches at almost throwaway prices.Companies bringing out an inn

5、ovative， patent-protected product face the challenge of setting prices for the first time. They can choose between two strat-egies： market-shimming pricing and market-penetration pricing.（1） Market-Skimming PricingMany companies that invent new products initially set high prices to skimrevenues laye

6、r by layer from the market. Intel is a prime user of this strategy， called market-skimming pricing. When Intel first introduces a new computer chip， it charges the highest price it can，given， the benefits of the new chip over competing chips. It sets a price that makes it just worthwhile for some se

7、gments of the market to adopt computers containing the chip. As initial sales slow down and as competitors threaten to introduce similar chips， Intel lowers the price to draw in the nest price-sensitive layer of customers.（2） Market-Penetration PricingRather than setting a high initial price to skim

8、 off small but profitable market segments， some companies use market-penetration pricing. They set a low initial price in order to penetrate the market quickly and deeply - to attract a large number of buyers quickly and win a large market share. The high sales volume results in falling costs， allow

9、ing the company to cut its price even further. For example， Dell and Dan used penetration pricing to sell high-quality computer products through lower-cost mail-order channels. Their sales soared when IBM， Compaq， Apple and other competitors selling through retail stores could not match their prices

10、. The Bank of Scotland and Winterthur of Switzerland used their Direct Line， Privilege and Churchill subsidiaries to grab profits and share in the motor insurance market by selling direct to consumers at market-penetrating prices. The high volume results in lower costs that， in turn， allow the disco

11、unters to keep prices low.Several conditions favour setting a low price. First， the market must be highly price sensitive， so that a low price produces more market growth. Second， production and distribution costs must fall as sales volume increases. Finally， the low price must help keep out the com

12、petition - otherwise the price advantage may he only temporary. For example， Dell faced difficult times when IBM and Compaq established their own direct distribution channels.2.Product-Mix Pricing StrategiesThe strategy for setting a products price often has to he changed when the product is part of

13、 a product mix. In this case， the firm looks for a set of prices that maximizes the profits on the total product mix. Pricing is difficult because the various products have related demand and costs， and face different degrees of competition. （1） Product Line PricingCompanies usually develop product

14、lines rather than single products. For example， Merlonis sells Indesit， Ariston and Seholte with price and status ascending in that order. There arc full ranges of Indesit to Ariston appliances， from washing machines to freezers， covering the first two price hands， while Scholte sells expensive buil

15、t-in kitchen equipment. Kodak offers not just one type of film， hut an assortment including regular Kodak film， higher-priced Kodak Royal Gold film for special occasions， and a lower-priced， seasonal film called Runtime that competes with store brands. Each of these brands is available in a variety

16、of sizes and film speeds. In product line pricing， management must decidion the price steps to set between the various products in a line.The price steps should take into account cost differences between the prod-ucts in the line， customer evaluations of their different features and competitors pric

17、es. If the price difference between two successive products is small， buyers will usually buy the more advanced product. This will increase company profits if the cost difference is smaller than the price difference. If the price difference is large， however， customers will generally buy the less ad

18、vanced products.（2） Optional-Product PricingMany companies use optional-pro duet pricing - offering to sell optional or acces-sory products along with their main product. For example，a ear buyer may choose to order power windows， cruise control and a radio with a CD player. Pricing these options is

19、a sticky problem. Car companies have to decide which items to include in the base price and which to offer as options. BMWs basic cars come famously under equipped. Typically the 318i is about DM40，000， but the customer then has to pay extra for a radio （prices vary）， electric windows （DM700）， sun r

20、oof （DM! ，800） and security system （DM1，100）. The basic model is stripped of so many comforts and conveniences that most buyers reject it. The pay for extras or buy a better-equipped version. More recently， however， American and European car makers have been forced to follow the example of the Japan

21、ese car makers and include in the basic price many useful items previously sold only as options. The advertised price now often represents a well-equipped car.（3） Cap Live-Pro duct PricingCompanies that make products that must be used along with a main product are using captive-product pricing. Exam

22、ples of captive products are razors， camera film and computer software. Producers of the main products （razors， cameras and computers） often price them low and set high mark-ups on the supplies. Thus Polaroid prices its cameras low because it makes its money on the film it sells. And Gillette sells

23、low-priced razors， but makes money on the replacement blades. Camera makers that do not sell film have to price their main products higher inorder to make the same overall profit.（4） By-Product PricingIn producing proeessed meats， petroleum products， chemicals and other products， there are often by-

24、products. If the by-products have no value and if getting rid of them is costly， this will affect the pricing of the main product. Using by-product pricing， the manufacturer will seek a market for these by-products and should accept any price that covers more than the cost of storing and delivering；

25、 them. This practice allows the seller to reduce the main products price to make It more competitive. By-products can even turn out to be profitable. For example， many lumber mills have begun to sell bark chips and sawdust profitably as decorative mulch for home and commercial landscaping.Sometimes

26、companies dont realize how valuable their by-products are. For example， most Zoos dont realize that one of their by-products their occupants manure - can be an excellent source of additional revenue. But the Zoo-Doo Compost Company has helped many zoos understand the costs and opportunities involved

27、 with these by-products. Zoo-Dolicenses its name to zoos and receives royalties on manure sales. Manyzoos dont even know how much manure they are producing or the cost of disposing of it， explains president and founder Fierce Ledbetter. Zoos are often so pleased with any savings they can find on dis

28、posal that they dont think to move into active by-product sales. However， sales of the fragrant by-product can be substantial. So far novelty sales have been the largest， with tiny containers of Zoo Doo （and even Love， Love Me Doovalentines） available in 160 zoo stores and 700 additional retail outl

29、ets. For the long-term market， Zoo-Doo looks to organic gardeners who buy15 to 70 pounds of manure at a time. Zoo Doo is already planning a Dung of the Month club to reach these lucrative by-product markets.（5） Product-Bundle PricingUsing， product-bundle pricing， sellers often combine several of the

30、ir products and offer the bundle at a reduced price. Thus theatres and sports teams sell seas on tickets at less than the cost of single tickets； hotels sell specially priced packages that include room， meals and entertainment； computer makers in elude attractives of ware packages with their persona

31、l computers. Price bundling can promote the sales of products that consumers might not otherwise buy， but the combined price must be low enough to get them to buy the bundle. In other cases， product-bundle pricing is used to sell more than the customer really wants. Obtaining a ticket to an exclusiv

32、e sports event is difficult， but World Cup football finals tickets are available to people willing to buy them bundled with a supersonic Concorde flight.3. Price-Adjustment StrategiesCompanies usually adjust their basic prices to account for various customer differences and changing situations. Seven price-adjustment strategics： discount and allowance pricing， segmented pricing， psychological pricing， promotional pricing， -value pricing， geographical pricing and international pricing.（1） Discount and Allowance Pri