大学英语自学教程电子版教材下册Word下载.docx

大学英语自学教程电子版教材下册Word下载.docx

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Choiceistheopportunitytoselectamongalternatives.Ifthereisnochoice,thereisnodecisiontobemade.Decisionmakingistheprocessofchoosing,andmanydecisionshaveabroadrangeofchoice.Forexample,astudentmaybeabletochooseamonganumberofdifferentcoursesinordertoimplementthedecisiontoobtainacollegedegree.Formanagers,everydecisionhasconstraintsbasedonpolicies,procedures,laws,precedents,andthelike.Theseconstraintsexistatalllevelsoftheorganization.

Alternativesarethepossiblecoursesofactionfromwhichchoicescanbemade.Iftherearenoalternatives,thereisnochoiceand,therefore,nodecision.Ifnoalternativesareseen,oftenitmeansthatathoroughjobofexaminingtheproblemshasnotbeendone.Forexample,managerssometimestreatproblemsinaneither/orfashion;

thisistheirwayofsimplifyingcomplexproblems.Butthetendencytosimplifyblindsthemtootheralternatives.

Atthemanageriallevel,decisionmakingincludeslimitingalternativesaswellasidentifyingthem,andtherangeisfromhighlylimitedtopracticallyunlimited.

Decisionmakersmusthavesomewayofdeterminingwhichofseveralalternativesisbest--thatis,whichcontributesthemosttotheachievementoforganizationalgoals.Anorganizationalgoalisanendorastateofaffairstheorganizationseekstoreach.Becauseindividuals（andorganizations）frequentlyhavedifferentideasabouthowtoattainthegoals,thebestchoicemaydependonwhomakesthedecision.Frequently,departmentsorunitswithinanorganizationmakedecisionsthataregoodforthemindividuallybutthatarelessthanoptimalforthelargerorganization.Calledsuboptimization,thisisatrade-offthatincreasestheadvantagestooneunitorfunctionbutdecreasestheadvantagestoanotherunitorfunction.Forexample,themarketingmanagermayargueeffectivelyforanincreasedadvertisingbudget.Inthelargerschemeofthings,however,increasedfundingforresearchtoimprovetheproductsmightbemorebeneficialtotheorganization.

Thesetrade-offsoccurbecausetherearemanyobjectivesthatorganizationswishtoattainsimultaneously.Someoftheseobjectivesaremoreimportantthanothers,buttheorderanddegreeofimportanceoftenvaryfrompersontopersonandfromdepartmenttodepartment.Differentmanagersdefinethesameproblemindifferentterms.Whenpresentedwithacommoncase,salesmanagerstendtoseesalesproblems,productionmanagersseeproductionproblems,andsoon.

Theorderingandimportanceofmultipleobjectivesisalsobased,inpart,onthevaluesofthedecisionmaker.Suchvaluesarepersonal;

theyarehardtounderstand,evenbytheindividual,becausetheyaresodynamicandcomplex.Inmanybusinesssituationsdifferentpeople'

svaluesaboutacceptabledegreesofriskandprofitabilitycausedisagreementaboutthecorrectnessofdecisions.

Peopleoftenassumethatadecisionisanisolatedphenomenon.Butfromasystemspointofview,problemshavemultiplecauses,anddecisionshaveintendedandunintendedconsequences.Anorganizationisanongoingentity,andadecisionmadetodaymayhaveconsequencesfarintothefuture.Thustheskilledmanagerlookstowardthefutureconsequencesofcurrentdecisions.

01-B.SecretsofSuccessatanInterview

Thesubjectoftoday'

stalkisinterviews.

Thekeywordsherearepreparationandconfidence,whichwillcarryyoufar.

Doyourhomeworkfirst.

Findoutallyoucanaboutthejobyouareapplyingforandtheorganizationyouhopetoworkfor.

ManyoftheemployersIinterviewedmadethesamecriticismofcandidates."

Theyhavenoideawhatthedaytodayworkofthejobbringsabout.Theyhavevaguenotionsof"

furtheringthecompany'

sprospects’orof'

servingthecommunity'

buthavenevertakenthetroubletofindouttheactualtaskstheywillberequiredtodo.”

Donotletthisbesaidofyou.Itshowsanunattractiveindifferencetoyouremployerandtoyourjob.

Takethetimetoputyourselfintotheinterviewer'

splace.Hewantssomebodywhoishard-workingwithapleasantpersonalityandarealinterestinthejob.

Anythingthatyoufindoutabouttheprospectiveemployercanbeusedtoyouradvantageduringtheinterviewtoshowthatyouhavebotheredtomastersomefactsaboutthepeoplewhoyouhopetoworkfor.

Writedown（andremember）thequestionsyouwanttoasktheinterviewer（s）sothatyouarenotspeechlesswhentheyinviteyourquestions.Makesurethatholidaysandpayarenotthefirstthingsyouaskabout.Ifallyourquestionshavebeenansweredduringtheinterview,reply:

"

Infact,Ididhaveseveralquestions,butyouhavealreadyansweredthemall.”

Donotbeafraidtoaskforclarificationofsomethingthathasbeensaidduringtheinterviewifyouwanttobesurewhatwasimplied,butdobepolite.

Justbeforeyougototheinterview,lookagainattheoriginaladvertisementthatyouanswered,anycorrespondencefromyourprospectiveemployer,photocopiesofyourletterofapplicationorapplicationformandyourresume.

Thenyouwillrememberwhatyousaidandwhattheywant.Thisisveryimportantifyouhaveappliedformanyjobsinashorttimeasitiseasytobecomeconfusedandgiveanimpressionofinefficiency.

Makesureyouknowwhereandwhenyouhavetoreportfortheinterview.Gotothebuilding（butnotinsidetheoffice）adayortwobefore,ifnecessary,tofindouthowlongthejourneytakesandwhereexactlytheplaceis.

Aimtoarrivefiveortenminutesearlyfortheactualinterview,thenyouwillhavealittletimeinhandandyouwillnotpanicifyouaredelayed.Youstartatadisadvantageifyouarriveworriedandtenminuteslate.

Dressinclean,neat,conservativeclothes.NowisNOTthetimetoexperimentwiththepunklookor（girls）towearlow-cutdresseswithminiskirts.Makesurethatyourshoes,handsandhair（andteeth）arecleanandneat.

Havetheletterinvitingyouforaninterviewreadytoshowincasethereisanydifficultyincommunication.

Youmayfindyourselffacingoneinterviewerorapanel.Thelatterisfarmoreintimidating,butdonotletitworryyoutoomuch.Theinterviewerwillprobablyhaveatableinfrontofhim/her.Donotputyourthingsorarmsonit.

Ifyouhaveabagoracase,putitonthefloorbesideyourchair.Donotclutchitnervouslyor,worsestill,dropit,spillingeverything.

Shakehandsiftheintervieweroffershishandfirst.Thereislittlelikelihoodthatapaneloffivewantstogothoughtheprocessofallshakinghandswithyouinturn.Soyoudonotbeupsetifnooneoffers.

Shakehandsfirmly--aweakhandsuggestsaweakpersonality,andacrushinggripisobviouslypainful.Donotdropthehandassoonasyourshastoucheditasthiswillseemtoshowyoudonotliketheotherperson.

Speakpolitelyandnaturallyevenifyouarefeelingshy.Thinkbeforeyouansweranyquestions.

Ifyoucannotunderstand,ask:

Wouldyoumindrephrasingthequestion,please?

"

Thequestionwillthenberepeatedindifferentwords.

Ifyouarenotdefinitelyacceptedorturneddownonthespot,ask:

WhenmayIexpecttoheartheresultsofthisinterview?

Ifyoudoreceivealetterofferingyouthejob,youmustreplybyletter（keepaphotocopy）assoonaspossible.

Goodluck!

02-A.BlackHoles

Whatisablackhole?

Well,it'

sdifficulttoanswerthisquestion,sincethetermswewouldnormallyusetodescribeascientificphenomenonareinadequatehere.Astronomersandscientiststhinkthatablackholeisaregionofspace（notathing）intowhichmatterhasfallenandfromwhichnothingcanescape?

notevenlight.Sowecan'

tseeablackhole.Ablackholeexertsastronggravitationalpullandyetithasnomatter.Itisonlyspace--orsowethink.Howcanthishappen?

Thetheoryisthatsomestarsexplodewhentheirdensityincreasestoaparticularpoint;

theycollapseandsometimesasupernovaoccurs.Fromearth,asupernovalookslikeaverybrightlightintheskywhichshineseveninthedaytime.Supernovaewerereportedbyastronomersintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.SomepeoplethinkthattheStarofBethlehemcouldhavebeenasupernova.ThecollapseofastarmayproduceaWhiteDwarforaneutronstar--astar,whosematterissodensethatitcontinuallyshrinksbytheforceofitsowngravity.Butifthestarisverylarge（muchbiggerthanoursun）thisprocessofshrinkingmaybesointensethatablackholeresults.Imaginetheearthreducedtothesizeofamarble,butstillhavingthesamemassandastrongergravitationalpull,andyouhavesomeideaoftheforceofablackhole.Anymatterneartheblackholeissuckedin.Itisimpossibletosaywhathappensinsideablackhole.Scientistshavecalledtheboundaryareaaroundtheholethe"

eventhorizon."