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7Pragmatics:
Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledexample,“Ido”Theworddomeansdifferentcontext.
8Sociolinguistics:
Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledexample,regionaldialects,socialvariationinlanguage.
9Psycholinguistics:
Thestudyof
languagewithreferencetoworkingsofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.
二音系学
1Phonetics:
Thestudyofsoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics.
2Phonology:
Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.
3Phone:
Phonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegement.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;
somedo,somedon’t.
4Phoneme:
Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme;
itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.
5allophone:
Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.
6Complementarydistribution:
Thesetwoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincompkenebtarydistribution.
7Minimalpair:
Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegementwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.
8Stress:
Whenacertainsyllableofawordisstressed,itmeansthatthesyllableisprouncedwithgreatforcethantheotherorothers.
9tones:
Tonesarepitchvariation,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephoneme;
therefore,thetoneisasuprasegementalfeature.
10intonation:
Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleinconveyingmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish
三形态学
1morphology:
Morphologyisabranchofgrammerwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.
2inflectionalmorphology:
Inflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflectionsofword-formation.
3derivationalmorphology:
Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.
4morpheme:
Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.
5freemorpheme:
Freemorphemearethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselcesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.
6boundmorpheme:
Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.
7root:
Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;
itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;
itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.
8affix:
Affixesareoftwotypes:
inflectionalandderivational.
9prefix:
Prefixoccuratthebeginningofaword.
10suffix:
Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;
theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.
11derivation:
Derivationaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreatacanbeviewedastheaddingofaffixestostemtoformneswords.
12compounding:
Likederivation,compoundingisanotherpopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatnewwords.
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四句法学
1linguisticcompetence:
Comskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.
2sentence:
Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorcommand.
3transformationrules:
Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformationalrules.Theoperationofthetransformationalrulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.
4D-structure:
Asentencemayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation.Oneexistsbeforemovementtakeplace,theotheroccursaftermovementtakeplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationarecommonlytermedasD-structure.
5Moveа:
Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,i,e.theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveа
五语义学
1semantics:
Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.
2sense:
Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;
itisabstractanddecontextualized.
3reference:
Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;
itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguistic
elementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.
4synonymy:
Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonymy.
5polysemy:
Polysemyreferstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonewordhavingmorethanonemeaningiscalledapolysemicword.
6antonymy:
Antonymyreferstotheoppositenessofmeaning.Wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningarecalledantonyms.
7homonymy:
Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.
8hyponymy:
Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.
9componentialanalysis:
Componentialanalysisisawaytoanalyzewprdmeaning.Itwasproposedbystructuralsemanticists.
10grammaticalmeaning:
Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,.itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.
11semanticmeaning:
Thesemanticmeaningofasentenceisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.
12predication:
Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication.Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.
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七历史语言学
1historicallinguistics:
Historicallinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.
2apocope:
Anotherwell-documentedsoundlossisthedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegement,aphenomenoncalledapocope.
3epenthesis:
Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.
4metathesis:
Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovementisknownasmetathesis.
5compounding:
Compoundingisaprocessofcombiningtwoormorewordsintoonelexicalunit.
6derivation:
Derivationreferstotheprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots.
7blending:
Blendingisaprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwords.
8back-formation:
Back-formationisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword.
9semanticbroadening:
Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenotation..
10semanticnarrowing:
Semanticnarrowingisaprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.
11semanticshift:
Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquireanew,sometimesrelated,meaning.
12protolanguage:
Itreferstoafamilyofalanguage.
13soundshift:
Itreferstothesystematicmodificationofaseriesofphonemes.
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八社会语言学
1sociolinguistics:
Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinsocialcontext.
2speechcommunity:
Aspeechcommunityisthusdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.
3speechvariety:
Speechvariety,alsoknownaslanguagevariety,refers
toanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.
4languageplanning:
Onewayoutofthecommunicationdilemmaislanguagestandardizationknownaslanguageplanning.Thismeansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystem,acrossregionalboundaries.
5idiolect:
Suchapersonaldialectisreferedtoasidiolect.
6standardlanguage:
Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbytheg