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(语素音义关系的任意性)
Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel:
languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.
(语言在句法层面是非任意性)
【判断题】
Thelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaningisamatterofconvention.
语言的形式和意义的连接是约定俗成,即规约性
★任意性具有两个层面,而非anylevel!
!
(判断题)
Arbitrariness→Makeslanguagepotentiallycreative
language
convention→Makeslanguagesystematic
B、Duality双重性,二元性
Humanlanguageisproductiveorcreativeduetodualityandrecursiveness(递归性).(填空题)
Thestructuralorganizationoflanguageintotwoabstractlevels:
♦Atthelowerlevel(thesecondarylevel):
meaningfulunits
♦Atthehigherlevel(theprimarylevel):
meaninglesssegments
Expressionofduality:
♦1.Combinemeaninglesssoundsintomeaningfullinguisticunits
♦2.Combinesmallunitsintobigunits
C、Creativity创造性
Languageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Wecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.(recursesentence)
Recursiveness:
itreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutdefinitelimit.
D、Displacement移位性
Humanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.(定义填空题)
移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体,时间或观点。
动物语言与人类语言移位性的表现(判断题)
Suchanimalsareunder“immediatestimuluscontrol”.Humanlanguageis,onthecontrary,stimulusfree.(动物语言会受到直接刺激控制)
Ourlanguageenablesustocommunicateaboutthingsthatdonotexistordonotyetexist.
考点3:
FunctionsofLanguage语言的功能
A、Theinformativefunction(信息功能)
Informativefunction:
themajorroleoflanguage;
languageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.
B、InterpersonalFunction(人际功能)
InterpersonalFunction:
themostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,bywhichpeopleestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.
eg:
DearSir,DearProfessor,Johnny,yours,yourobedientservant…等表称呼的
C、Theperformativefunction(施事功能):
Theperformativefunction:
Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.
用说话表示行为
D、Theemotivefunction(情感功能):
Theemotivefunction:
oneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitiscrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.
□标志性语句:
swearword(誓言)、obscenities(侮辱之词)、involuntaryverbalreactionstoapieceofartorscenery、conventionalwords/phrases,eg:
–God,Damnit,Whatasight,Wow,Ugh我的妈呀,老天爷啊,晕
E、Phaticcommunion(寒暄功能)
Theuseoflanguagetoestablishanatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.
♦E.g.Greetings,Farewells,andCommentsontheweather,etc.
F、Therecreationalfunction(娱乐功能)
Theuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit
–suchasababy‘sbabblingorachanter’schanting.
G、Metalingualfunction(元语言功能)
Metalingualfunction:
ourlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutitself,talkingabouttalkandthinkingaboutthinking.
–Tobehonest;
onsecondthought;
totellyouthetruth;
asamatteroffact;
thatistosay;
–Suchexpressionsareusedmostfrequentlywhenwewanttoexpatiatethemeaningofformerclausesinanotherwayinargumentation.
♦Itmakesthelanguageinfinitelyself-reflexive(自我反身性)
考点4:
MainbranchesofLinguistics(考查定义!
!
)
•1.Sound→phonetics语音
•2.Sounds→phonology音系学
•3.Word→morphology形态学
•4.Words/sentence→syntax句法学
•5.Meaning→semantics语义学
•6.Meaninginacontext→pragmatics语用学(languageinuse)
Macrolinguistics(微观语言学)
Psycholinguistics心里语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学
考点5:
distinctionsinlinguistics
A、Descriptivevs.Prescriptive描述性与规定性
PeoplesayX.Descriptive(Todescribethelinguisticfactsobserved)
Don’t’sayX.Prescriptive(Tolaydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehavior)
ModernlinguisticsismostlyDescriptive.现代语言学更多的是描述某些现象
TraditionEnglishbelongstoPrescriptive.古代英语则有许多条条框框
B、Synchronicvs.diachronic共时性与历时性(判断题)
Asynchronic(共时的)description,thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime,takesafixedinstantasitspointofobservation(staticstate).
◦AGrammarofModernGreek;
◦TheStructureofShakespeare’sEnglish
◦EnglishExamined:
TwoCenturiesofCommentontheMother-Tongue.
◦ProteanShape:
AStudyinEighteenth-centuryVocabularyandUsage.
◦TheCategoriesandTypesofPresent-DayEnglishWord-Formation.
Diachronic(历时的):
thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.(dynamicstate)
◦Pejorative(轻蔑语)SenseDevelopmentinEnglish
◦PejorativeSenseDevelopmentinEnglish.
C、Langue&
parole语言和言语
Langue(language):
说话者的语言能力thegeneralizedrulesoflanguage
Parole(speaking):
语言上的实际表现theapplicationofrules
D、Competenceandperformance
Competence:
theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage(语言能力)
Performance:
theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations(语言运用)
Langue-parole
Competence-performance
Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsforacommunity
Saussurelooksatlanguagefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofview
Competenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual
N.Chomskydealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.
Wordsarethemoststableofalllinguisticunits,inrespectoftheirinternalstructure.
就词的内部结构而言,词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。
Chapter2Speechsound
Whatarethethreecavitiesofthevocaltract?
Thepharyngealcavity:
咽腔Theoralcavity:
口腔Thenasalcavity:
鼻腔
G:
velar(软腭音):
舌后部抬升抵住软腭所发出的音[k][g][ŋ][w]
•[k]asin‘cat’[g]asin‘get’[ŋ]asin‘sing’[w]asin‘wet’
前元音:
由舌的前部发出舌尖抵下齿,舌前部向硬腭抬起[i:
][i][e][æ
]
Consonants辅音Vowels元音
左边:
voiceless右边:
voiced
Stop
爆破音Nasal
鼻音Fricative
摩擦音
Lateral
边音Affricate
塞擦音
会描述辅音,(填空题中找出两个辅音共同的特点)
[p]voicelessbilabialstop
[b]voicedbilabialstop
他们的共同特点是都具有bilabialstop
元音的描述
ClassificationofRPandGApurevowels参见P36
Front
Central
Back
Ungrounded
Rounded
Tense
Lax
High
Mid
Low
Eg
:
love[∧]midbacklaxungroundedvoel
考点:
会判断broadtranscription宽式音标与narrowtranscription严式音标的区别
eg
peak[pi:
k]broadtranscription[pʰi:
k]narrowtranscription
Minimalpairs(最小对立体)
Fourrequirementsforidentifyingminimalpairs:
1)Theyhavethesamenumberofsoundsegments.a.彼此的语音数量相等*(dipdisk)
2)Theyaredifferentinmeaning.b.彼此的意义不同
3)Theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment.c.彼此仅存在一个语音的差异*(bitbad)
4)Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings.d.语音差异出现在同一位置上
●pill/bill;
pill/till;
till/kill;
kill/dill/;
dill/gill
●cut/but;
big/peg;
peak/leap
Phones(音素)
Phone:
aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.
Allophones:
variationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositions.
Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.
Theminimaldistinctivespeechsounds--Phonemes
Variantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.thenon-distinctivespeechsounds
Tworequirementsforphonestofallintothesamephoneme:
满足allophones的两个条件:
1)allophonesofthesamephonemeshouldbeincomplementarydistribution.必须形成互补关系
/l/[l]/______V(clearl)eg:
lead
[l]/V______(darkl)eg:
feel
●Notallthephones(sounds)incomplementarydistributionareconsideredtobeallophonesofthesamephoneme----
●theyhavenophoneticsimilarity.(成互补分布的不一定都属于同一音位)
2)theymustbearphoneticsimilarity.发音近似
Assimilation(同化)
(1)withinasyllable音节内P42ex.2-1---2-3
can[kæ
n][æ
]◊[æ
]/___[+nasal]nasalization鼻音化
tenth[tɛnθ][n]◊[n]/___[+dental]dentalization齿音化
sink[sɪŋk][n]◊[ŋ]/___[+velar]velarization软腭化
(2)Acrosssyllables跨音节P43ex.2-4
pan[ŋ]cake
n→ŋ[k]velar
sun[ŋ]glasses
n→ŋ[g]velar
(3)Acrosswordboundaries跨过词的界限P43ex.2-5
Youcan[ŋ]keepthemHecan[ŋ]gonow
n→ŋ[k]velarn→ŋ[g]velar
Chapter3Morphology
定义!
Morphology形态学:
thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,ortherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents:
Morphemes
Morphemes(语素):
Thesmallestmeaningfulcomponentsofwords.
【smallestunitthatcarriesmeaning】
Phoneme(词素):
【smallestunitthatcandistinguishmeaning】
词素的分类
A、intermsoftheircapacityofoccurringalone
Freemorphemes自由语素
Boundmorphemes黏着语素
B、Poly-morphemicwordsotherthancompoundsmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes.
•rootthepartleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved词根
•stemthepartleftwhenacertainaffixisremoved词干
•affixthepartwhichisattachedtootherwords;
usuallyboundmorphemes词缀
C、Inflectionalmorphemes曲折词Deriv