乔姆斯基认为小孩生来就有能力学习任何人类语言发送之欧阳术创编Word文件下载.docx
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他对伯尔赫斯·
弗雷德里克·
斯金纳所著《口语行为》的评论,也有助于发动心理学的认知革命,挑战1950年代研究人类行为和语言方式中占主导地位的行为主义。
他所采用以自然为本来研究语言的方法也大大地影响了语言和心智的哲学研究。
他的另一大成就是建立了乔姆斯基层级:
根据“文法生成力”不同而对形式语言做的分类。
……
正是在此期间,乔姆斯基开始更加公开地参与政治。
随着他1967年在《纽约书评》上发表的一篇题为「知识分子的责任」的文章,乔姆斯基成为越南战争的主要反对者之一。
从那时起,乔姆斯基便因他的政治立场而出名,对世界各地的政局发表评论,并撰写了大量著作。
他对美国外交政策及美国权力合法性的批判影响深远,并因而成为富有争议的人物。
他有左派的忠诚追随者,但也受到右派及自由派越来越多的批评,尤其是针对他对911事件的反应。
对美国外交政策的批评给乔姆斯基带来了人身威胁。
他的名字被列在特奥多·
卡克辛斯基(TheodoreKaczynski,「邮箱炸弹杀手」)的预定名单上。
在卡氏被捕以前,乔姆斯基让人检查收到的邮件以防炸弹。
他自称也经常被警察保护,特别是在麻省理工校园的时候,虽然他本人原则上不同意这种保护。
尽管对美国百般批评,乔姆斯基还是生活在美国。
他的解释是:
美国仍然是世界上最伟大的国家。
后来他又阐发为:
「国与国之间的综合比较没有什么意义,我也不会这么比较。
不过美国有些成就,特别是在言论自由方面几个世纪来争得的领先地位,是值得敬仰的。
”
※※※※※※※※
Chomskybelieveschildrenarebornwithanabilitytolearnanyhumanlanguage.
iloveenglishlanguage
4.1childlanguageacquisitiontheory–chomsky,crystal,Aitchison&
piaget
Chomsky
NoamChomskybelievesthatchildrenarebornwithaninheritedabilitytolearnanyhumanlanguage.Heclaimsthatcertainlinguisticstructureswhichchildrenusesoaccuratelymustbealreadyimprintedonthechild’smind.Chomskybelievesthateverychildhasa‘languageacquisitiondevice’orLADwhichencodesthemajorprinciplesofalanguageanditsgrammaticalstructuresintothechild’sbrain.ChildrenhavethenonlytolearnnewvocabularyandapplythesyntacticstructuresfromtheLADtoformsentences.Chomskypointsoutthatachildcouldnotpossiblylearnalanguagethroughimitationalonebecausethelanguagespokenaroundthemishighlyirregular–adult’sspeechisoftenbrokenupandevensometimesungrammatical.Chomsky’stheoryappliestoalllanguagesastheyallcontainnouns,verbs,consonantsandvowelsandchildrenappeartobe‘hard-wired’toacquirethegrammar.Everylanguageisextremelycomplex,oftenwithsubtledistinctionswhichevennativespeakersareunawareof.However,allchildren,regardlessoftheirintellectualability,becomefluentintheirnativelanguagewithinfiveorsixyears.
EvidencetosupportChomsky’stheory
∙Childrenlearningtospeaknevermakegrammaticalerrorssuchasgettingtheirsubjects,verbsandobjectsinthewrongorder.
∙Ifanadultdeliberatelysaidagrammaticallyincorrectsentence,thechildwouldnotice.
∙Childrenoftensaythingsthatareungrammaticalsuchas‘mamaball’,whichtheycannothavelearntpassively.
∙Mistakessuchas‘Idrawed’insteadof‘Idrew’showtheyarenotlearningthroughimitationalone.
∙Chomskyusedthesentence‘colourlessgreenideassleepfuriously’,whichisgrammaticalalthoughitdoesn’tmakesense,toprovehistheory:
hesaiditshowsthatsentencescanbegrammaticalwithouthavinganymeaning,thatwecantellthedifferencebetweenagrammaticalandanungrammaticalsentencewithouteverhavingheardthesentencebefore,andthatwecanproduceandunderstandbrandnewsentencesthatnoonehaseversaidbefore.
EvidenceagainstChomsky’stheory
∙CriticsofChomsky’stheorysaythatalthoughitisclearthatchildrendon’tlearnlanguagethroughimitationalone,thisdoesnotprovethattheymusthaveanLAD
–languagelearningcouldmerelybethroughgenerallearningandunderstandingabilitiesandinteractionswithotherpeople.
Dialogue–
ParentandChild(3yearsold)
Parent:
Whatdidyoudotoday?
Child:
Medrawedacat.(applies–edsuffixrulebutgetswrong)
Youdrewacat?
Yeah.(understandscorrection)
Whodidyouplaywithatbreaktime?
MeplayedwithSarahandHelen.(wrongpronoun–notlearntpassively)
Thatsoundfun.Nowwhatdoyouwantfortea?
Dunno.Whatyouhaving?
DaddyandIarehavingfish.
Youhavingfishes?
(incorrectuseofpluralnounbutshowschildapplyingrules)
Yes.I’lldoyousomefishfingersandifyou’reagoodgirlandeat
themallyoucanhaveasweetie.(applyingpluralnounrule)
Mewanttwosweeties.
Alrightthen.NowgoandwatchPostmanPatwhileIstartthetea.
WhenDaddycominghome?
(getsSVOordercorrectallthetime)
He’llbeheresoon.
David
Crystal
DavidCrystal’sTheoryOnChildLanguageAcquisition
ProfessorCrystalisbestknownforhistwoencyclopaediasTheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguageandTheCambridgeEncyclopaediaoftheEnglishLanguage.Sowhatdoesthishavetodowithchildlanguageacquisition?
DavidCrystalhasthetheorythatchildrenlearnlanguageinfivestages,whicharen’tclearlydefinedandsometieinwitheachother.
Thesestagesare:
StageOne:
Thisiswherechildrensaythingsforthreepurposes:
1.Togetsomethingtheywant
2.Togetsomeone’sattention
3.Todrawattentiontosomething
Thentheybegintomakebasicstatementssuchas“daddycar”
Duringthisstagechildrenbeginnamingthingswithsinglewordsandthenmoveontorelatingobjectswithotherthings,placesandpeople,forexample,“theremummy”.Theyalsorelateobjectswithevents,forexample,“birdgone”.
Atthisearlystagetheydon’thavemuchvocabularysotheyuseintonationtoaskaquestion.Childrenusewordslike:
“there,wantandallgone”toexpressafullsentence.Thiscouldbesaidthatpartofthisstageisholophrastic.
StageTwo:
Thisiswhenchildrenusuallyaskquestions,“where”questionscomefirst.Theirquestionsoftenbeginwithinterrogativepronouns(what,where)followedbyanounorverbsuchas“wheregone?
Childrenbecomeconcernedwithnamingandclassifyingthingsbyfrequentlyasking“Wassat?
”Theymayalsobegintotalkaboutthecharacteristicsofthingsforexample:
big/small.Childrenaretaughttolearnthingsinoppositepairssuchasup/downandhot/cold.
StageThree:
Bynowchildrenwouldbeaskinglotsofdifferentquestionsbutoftensignallingthattheyarequestionswithintonationalone,forexample:
“Sallyplayingardenmummy?
”Thisismadeintoaquestionbyvaryingthetoneofvoice.
Childrensoonbegintoexpressmorecomplexwantsbyusingmoregrammaticallycorrectlanguage,forexample:
“Iwantmummytotakeitwork”meaning“Iwantmummytotakeittowork”
Verbssuchas“listen”and“know”arealsoused.Childrenrefertoeventsinthepastandlessofteninthefuture.Theyusuallytalkaboutcontinuingactionforexamples:
“shestillinbed”andaskaboutthestateofactions(whethersomethingisfinishedornot)
Thebasicsentencestructurehasexpandedsuchas:
[subject]+[verb]+[object]+[adverboranyotherelementused]Sentenceslike:
“Youdryhands”and“Amandigdownthere”begintoappearandauxiliaryverbsareusedinsentencessuchas“Iamgoing”andphraseslike“onthetable”[preposition]+[article]+[noun]
StageFour:
Thisiswhenchildrenuseincreasinglycomplexsentencestructuresandbeginto:
∙Explainthings
∙Askforexplanationsusingtheword:
“why?
∙Makingawiderangeofrequests:
“shallIdoit?
Nowtheyareabletousecomplexsentencestructurestheyhaveflexiblelanguagetoolsforexpressingawiderangeofmeanings.Probablythemostremarkabledevelopmentistheircomprehensionoflanguageanduseofabstractverbsforexample“know”toexpressmentaloperations.Theybegintocommunicatemeaningindirectlybyreplacingimperativessuchas“giveme”withquestions;
“canIhave?
Aswellassayingwhattheymeantheynowhavepragmaticunderstandingandsuittheirutterancestocontextorsituation.Childrenalsousenegation(denial/contradiction)forexample:
“hedoesn’twantone!
”Theydon’trelyonintonationandsignalsanymoreastheyexplainmorefully.
Theyarenowabletouseauxiliaryverbsandmayduplicatemodalverbs“please,canI,mayI”Thiscouldbeshowingthat“may”isrequiredforcourtesywhilst“can”indicatesbeingabletodosomething.
AndFinally…
StageFive:
Bythisstagechildrenregularlyuselanguagetodoallthethingsthattheyneeditfor.Theygiveinformation,askingandansweringquestions,requestingdirectlyandindirectly,suggesting,offering,statingandexpressing.
Childrenarenowabletotalkaboutthingshypotheticallyandconditionallyforexample“IfIwereyou,Iwould…”
Theyarenowabletoexplainconditionsrequiredforsomethingtohappen;
“You’vegotturnthetaponfirstinordertowashyourhands”
Aswellasmakinggeneralreferencestopastandfuture,childrennowtalkaboutparticulartimessuchas:
“aftertea”and“beforebedtime”
Bythisstagechildrenareverycomfortablewithallquestionsbeginningwithwordslike:
“What?
”and“When?
”wherethesubjectandverbarereversedsuchas“whatdoesthatmean?
”
乔姆斯基认为小孩生来就有能力学习任何人类语言之二
Scripts
Stage1:
Allgone!
Mother:
Yes,themilkisallgone.
Mummy,here.
Mummy’shere.
Wantmore!
That’senoughmilknow.
No,more.
Lookatdolly,she’ssleeping.
Dolly,there?
Yes,dollyisinthebed.
Dollybye-bye.
Stage2:
Where’sDaddy?
Outside,look?
Outsidehot.
Yesit’ssunny.
Wassat?
It’sabook.
Bigbook.
Goodgirl.
Stage3:
Daddyissleeping?
UhuhDaddy’ssleepingonthecouchisn’the?
Himwakeup!
Nobecauseheissleeping.Thatwouldn’tbeverynicewouldit?
IwantDaddy.
Stage4:
Whatwouldyoulikeforlunch?
Sandwiches?
Pasta?
Please,may,canIhaveham?
Onsandwiches?
*nods*
What’sthemagicword?
Please!
Doyouwantacupoforangejuice?
*shakeshe