国贸第四章Word文件下载.docx

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~Creatinguncertaintyabouttheconditionsunderwhichimportswillbepermitted.

4.1.2MajorFormsofNTBs

1.Importquota

AmostcommonformofNTBsthatacountrycanemploytoprotectdomesticcompaniesisanimport

quota,whichstrictlylimitstheamountofaparticularproductthataforeigncountrycanexporttothequota-enactingcountry.

Thereexistingtwotypesofimportquota:

absolutequotaandtariffquota.

1）Absolutequota

Absolutequotameansthatwhentheimportsoftheparticularproductduringacertaintimeperiodreachthequota,nomoreimportswouldbeallowed.Thoseabsolutequotaswhichareonglobalbasis,

withoutreferencetocountriesoforigin,arereferredtoasglobalquotaswhilethoseonacountrybasisarecountryquotas.Thecountryquotaisallocatedtotheexportingcountriesonthebasisoftheirpoliticalandeconomicrelationswiththeimportingcountryandtheimportersareusuallyrequiredtosubmitcertificatesoforiginwhengoingthroughcustomsformalities.

2）Tariffquota

Forthepurposeofrestrictingimport,someimportingcountrieswillincreasethetariffratesubstantiallywhenthenumberoftheparticularproductimportedexceedsthequota.Suchaquotaisatariffquota.Tariffquotamayalsobeonacountrybasisoronglobalbasis.

Thereareseveralreasonswhyprotectionistsandgovernmentofficialsmayfavorusingaquotainsteadofatariff.Forinstance,

~Aquotaensuresthatthequantityofimportsisstrictlylimited;

atariffwouldallowimportquantitytoincreaseifforeignproducerscuttheirpricesorifourdomesticdemandincreases.

~Aquotagivesgovernmentofficialsgreaterpower.Aswewillseebelow,theseofficialsoftenhaveadministrativeauthoritywhogetstheimportlicensesunderqquotasystem,andtheycanusethispowertotheiradvantage.QuotaversusTariffforaSmallCountry

Figure4.1MajorTypesofNTBs

Type

WhatItIs

ChannelofEffects

Importquota

Quantitativelimitonimports

Quantity

Voluntaryexportrestraint（VER）

Quantitativelimitonexports

（basedonthreatofimportrestriction）

Tariff-quota

Allowsimportstoenterthecountryataloworzerotariffuptoaspecifiedquantity;

imposesahighertariffonimportsabovethisquantity

Quantity（ifthetariffforpotentialimportsabovethespecifiedquantityissohighthatisprohibitive,sothattherearenoimportsabovethespecifiedquantity）

Governmentprocurement

Lawsandgovernmentrulesthatfavorlocalproductswhenthegovernmentisthebuyer

Quantity（forinstance,anoutrightprohibition）

Costofimporting（forinstance,specialproceduresforimports）

Localcontentandmixingrequirements

Requirespecifieduseoflocallabor,materials,orotherproducts

Technicalandproductstandards

Discriminateagainstimportsbywritingorenforcingstandardsinawaythatadverselyaffectsimportsmorethandomesticproducts

Cost（toconformtostandardsordemonstratecompliance）

Uncertainty（ifapprovalproceduresareunclear）

Advancedeposit

Requiressomeofthevaleofintendedimportstobedepositedwiththegovernment,andallowsthegovernmenttopaylow-orzero-interestonthesedeposits

Cost（foregoneinterest）

Importlicensing

Requiresimporterstoapplyforandreceiveapprovalforintendedimports

Cost（ofapplicationprocedure）

Uncertainty（ifbasisforapprovalisunclear）

Othercustomsprocedures（classificationofproduct,valuationofproduct,of,proceduresforclearing）

Affecttheamountoftariffdutiesowedorthequotalimitapplied;

procedurescanbesloworcostly

Cost

Uncertainty

Figure4.1providesalistingofmajortypesofNTBsandindicatesthemainwaythateachaffectsimports.Althoughantidumpingdutiesandcountervailingdutiesarenotlistedinthefigure,theyarealsooftenconsideredNTBs.Becausegovernmentsclaimthattheyimposethesekindsofdutiesinresponsetounfairpracticesbyforeignexporters,wedeferanin-depthdiscussionofantidumpingandcountervailingdutiestonextsection.HerewewillexaminecarefullyseveraltypesofNTBslistedinFigure4.1.

QuotaversusTariffforaSmallCountry

TheeffectsofaquotaonbicyclesareportrayedinFigure4.2forasmallimportingcountryfacingagivenworldpriceof$300perbicycle.Recallthatacountryis"

small"

ifitsdecisionsabouthowmuchtoimportofaproducthavenoeffectonthegoingworldpriceoftheproduct.Thatis,theforeignsupplyofexportstothissmallcountryisinfinitelyelasticatthisprice.InourexampleinFigure8.2,thecountrywouldimport1.0millionbikesperyearwithfreetrade.Thegovernmentthenimposesaquotathatlimitsimportstoasmallerquantity,say,0.6millionbikesperyear.

Thequotaalterstheavailablesupplyofbicycleswithintheimportingcountry.Foralldomesticpricesabovetheworldprice,thetotal（domesticplusimport）supplywithinthecountryequalsthedomesticsupplycurveplusthefixedquotaquantity（Qo）ofimports.Attheworldpriceof$300therewouldbeexcessdemandforbicyclesintheimportingcountry.Themarketintheimportingcountrywillclearonlyatthehigherpriceof$330,asshownbytheintersectionofthetotalavailablesupplycurve（Sd+Qo）andthedomesticdemandcurve（Dd）ontheleftsideofFigure8.2.Atthedomesticpriceof$330,thedomesticquantitysuppliedis0.8million,thequantityimportedisthequotaquantityof0.6million,andthedomesticquantitydemandedis1.4million.（Wecanseethesameeffectondomesticpricebyusingthecountry'

sdemand-for-importscurveshownintheleftsideofthefigure.Ifthequotalimitsimportsto0.6million,thenthedemandforimportsindicatesapriceof$330.）

Figure4.2TheEffectofanImportQuotaunderCompetitiveConditions,SmallImportingCountry

Aquotacutsoffthesupplyofimportsbyplacinganabsolutelimitonwhatcanbeboughtfromabroad.Underthecompetitiveconditionsshownbeen,theeffectsofanimportquotaarethesameasthoseofatariffthatcutsimportsjustasmuch（withthepossibleexceptionofwhogetsshadedareac）.Toseethis,comparetheprices,quantities,andareasa,b,c,anddshownherewiththoseshowninFigure3.4

Theseeffectsondomesticpriceandquantitiesshouldsoundfamiliar.Theyarethesameastheeffectsofthe10percenttariffshowninFigures3.2through3.4.Foracompetitivemarket,theeffectsofaquotaonprice,quantities,andwell-beingarethesameasthoseofanequivalenttariff,withonepossibleexception.

Herearetheeffectsthatarethesame.Incomparisonwithfreetrade:

~Thequotaresultsinahigherpriceandlargerproductionquantity,sodomesticproducersgainsurplusequaltoareaa.

~Withthehigherpriceandsmallerconsumptionquantity,domesticconsumerslosesurplusequaltoareaa+b+c+d.

Therefore,thequotacreatesthesametwodeadweightlosses（b+d）,asdoesthetariff.

Thisleavesrectangularareac,the"

possibleexception"

totheequivalence.Withatariff,areacisgovernmenttariffrevenue.Withaquota,whatisit?

Whogetsit?

QuotaversusTariffforaLargeCountry

Figure4.3TheEffectsofanImportQuotaUnderCompetitiveConditions,LargeImportingCountry

Underthecompetitiveconditionsshownhere,theeffectsofanimportquotaarethesameasthoseofatariffthatcutsimportsjustasmuch（withthepossibleexceptionofwhogetsshadedarec+e）.Toseethis,comparetheprices,quantities,andareasa,b,c,d,eandfshownherewiththoseshowninFigure3.5

Figure4.3showstheeffectsofaquotaforacountrywhoseimportdemandforthisproductislargeenoughtoaffectworldprices.Alargecountryfacesanupward-slopingforeignsupply-of-exportscurve.Withfreetrade,thecountrywouldimport1.0millionbicyclesperyearandtheworldpricewouldbe$300perbicycle.Thegovernmentthenimposesanimportquotathatreducestheimportquantityto0.8millionbicycles.Bylookingattheleft-handsideofFigure4.3,weseetheeffectsofthequotaonprices.Domesticimportbuyerswillpay$315perbicycleiftheimportquantityislimitedto0.8million.Foreignexporterswillcompeteamongthemselvestomakethislimitedamountofexportsales,andtheywillbidtheexportpricedownto$285.

Wecanusethesepricesandtheright-handsideofFigure4.3toseewhatishappeninginthedomesticmarketforthecountrythatisimportingbicycles.Whenthedomesticpriceincreasesto$315,domesticquantitysuppliedincreasesto0.7millionanddomesticquantityconsumeddecreasesto1.5million.

Wecancompareaquotatoitsequivalenttariffforthelargecountrycase,bycomparingFigure4.3toFigure3.5.Wereachthesamegeneralconclusionforthelarge-countrycasethatwereachedforthesmall-countrycase.Withthesameexceptionofwhogetsthepricemarkupfromthequota（areac+einthelarge-countrycase）,theeffectsofthequotaarethesameasthoseoftheequivalenttariff.Ifthequotalicensescanbedistributedwithminimalresourcecosts,thentheeffectonnetnationalwell-beingoftheimportquotaisthegainofareaelessthe