The 18 bristish historyWord文件下载.docx

The 18 bristish historyWord文件下载.docx

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vWilliam,attheinvitationofProtestantopponentsofJamesII,ledarevoltagainsttheCatholicEnglishmonarchyin1688.ThiseventestablishedWilliamandhiswife,Mary,asrulersofEngland.

⏹With 

William, 

EnglandalsogotWilliam'

swarwithFrance,theWaroftheLeagueofAugsburg（1689-1697）,andtheWaroftheSpanishSuccession（1701-1714）.WilliamspenthisentirelifefightingtheterritorialambitionsofFrance'

sLouisXIV.

⏹ThevictoryofJohnChurchill（laterDukeofMarlborough）atBlenheimin1704showedthatEnglandwasonceagainaforcetobereckonedwithinEuropeanaffairs.The 

wars 

also 

demonstratedthewealththatEnglandnowhadatitsdisposalandthewillingnessoftheEnglishtolevytaxesonthemselvesinParliament.

⏹In1693Englandcreatedapermanentnationaldebtandin1694charteredtheBankofEngland.TheseandthedevelopingstockexchangewerethebasisofLondon'

sgrowingfinancialpositioninBritainandintheworld.

vJohnChurchill,knownasMarlborough,wasoneofEngland’sgreatestmilitarycommanders.

vBlenheimPalace

vQueenAnne

vAnne,queenofEngland,Scotland,andIreland,basedmuchofheradministrationontheadviceofherministers.Annehadnochildren,andherministers,fearfulthatScotlandmightallywiththeFrenchfollowingherdeath,pressuredtheScottishParliamentintoagreeingtomergethetwonationsintoasinglekingdom.

vIn1707theScottishandEnglishparliamentspassedanActofUnion,whichmergedtheformerlyindependentnationsintotheKingdomofGreatBritain.

RiseofGreatBritain

vIn 

1707 

Great 

Britainwasborn.Fearhadledthepoliticiansofbothnationstoaunionthatwouldprovedurableforhundredsofyears.TheActofUnionof1707createdasinglenationaladministration,removedtradebarriersbetweenthecountries,standardizedtaxationthroughouttheisland,andcreatedasingleParliament.However,EnglandandScotlandcontinuedtohaveseparatetraditionsoflawandseparateofficialchurches.

vGreat 

Britain 

emergedfromtheWaroftheSpanishSuccession（1701-1714）asoneoftheworld’sgreatmilitarypowers.Traditionallyanavalpower,Britainhadbuiltamodern,professionalarmyduringthereignofWilliamIII.Thisarmy,underthebrilliantmilitaryleadershipofJohnChurchill,1stdukeofMarlborough,ledtheanti-Frenchalliancetodecisivevictories.Ontheseas,theBritishnavycapturedtheislandofMinorcaintheMediterraneanandthestrategicfortressofGibraltar,whichguardstheentrancetotheMediterranean,onthesoutherncoastofSpain.ThesevictoriesgaveBritaincontrolovertheMediterranean.

1713 

and 

1714 

a 

seriesoftreatiesknownasthePeaceofUtrechtbroughtthewartoaformalconclusion.Asaresultofthewar,BritaingainedGibraltarandimportanttradeconcessionsfromSpain,includingamonopolyontheslavetradetotheSpanishcolonies.FromtheFrenchtheywonthecoloniesofNovaScotia,Newfoundland,andHudsonBay.

a.18th-centuryBritishSociety

vBritish 

society 

was 

stratifiedinthe18thcentury,withatinyaristocracyandlandedgentryatthetopandavastmassofpooratthebottom.Forthearistocracy,the18thcenturywasitsgreatestage.Britishlordswhocontrolledlargeestatessawtheirwealthincreasefromaboominagriculturalproduction,anexpansionofinvestmentopportunities,andthedominationofthegovernmentbythearistocracy.TheybuiltvastpalacesanddevelopednewareasofLondon,Edinburgh,andDublin.Themonarchyalmostexclusivelyappointedaristocratstothemostimportantpoliticaloffices.

BlenheimPalace:

anexample

vBlenheimPalaceinOxfordshire,England,wasdesignedin1705byBritisharchitectsSirJohnVanbrughandNicholasHawksmoor.Blenheimisanexampleofthestatelymansionsconstructedduringthe18thcenturybyEngland’sincreasinglywealthyaristocracy.

contrast 

to 

the 

aristocracy,thegentrylostmuchofthepoliticalandfinancialinfluenceithadwieldedsincethedaysoftheTudormonarchs.Manyholdersofsmallestatesfoundthatlandwasnolongerthesecuresourceofwealthithadoncebeen,especiallywiththehightaxesimposedonlandownerstofinanceBritain’swars.TheimmenseestatesofBritain’saristocraticclassprovidedtheirownerswithaconstantflowoffunds,whilehighertaxesoftenconsumedtheprofitsgeneratedbythesmallerestatesofthegentry.Althoughthegentry’sstatusinthelocalcommunitywassecure,merchantswhotradedluxurycommoditiesoverseassooneclipsedthegentryinwealthandinfluenceonthenationallevelduringthe18thcentury.

⏹Society 

in 

18th 

centurywasbecomingmorefluidthaninthepast,inpartbecauseofthegrowthofthemiddleclassesintownsandcities.Middle-classfamiliesearnedtheirlivingsintradeorinprofessions,suchaslawandmedicine.Theyvaluedliteracy,thrift,andeducation,ideasthatwerespreadbythinkersoftheAgeofEnlightenment.

⏹EspeciallyinfluentialwerephilosophersJohnLockeandDavidHumeandeconomistAdamSmith.LockeandHumestressedtheimportanceofthesensesandtheenvironmentinshapingtheindividual.Lockealsodescribedthehumanmindasablankstatethatwastobefilledbyeducationandexperience.Smith,inhisbookInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations（1776）,demonstratedhowtheefficientorganizationofeconomicactivitycreatedwealth.

JohnLocke（1632-1704）

vInthe17thcenturyEnglishphilosopherJohnLockedevelopedtheoriesofempiricismthatemphasizedtheroleofhumanexperienceinthepursuitofknowledgeandtruth.ManyofLocke’spoliticaltheoriesinfluencedtheauthorsoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.

DavidHume

vScottishphilosopherDavidHumeisconsideredoneofthegreatestskepticsinthehistoryofphilosophy.Humethoughtthatonecanknownothingoutsideofexperience,andexperience—basedonone’ssubjectiveperceptions—neverprovidestrueknowledgeofreality.Eventhelawofcauseandeffectwas,forHume,anunjustifiedbelief:

Ifonedropsaball,onecannotbecertainitwillfalltotheground.Rather,itisonlypossibletorecognizethroughpastexperiencethatcertainpairsofevents（droppingaball,theballstrikingtheground）havealwaysaccompaniedoneanother.

AdamSmith

vInhisfamoustreatise,TheWealthofNations,AdamSmitharguedthatprivatecompetitionfreefromregulationproducesanddistributeswealthbetterthangovernment-regulatedmarkets.Since1776,whenSmithproducedhiswork,hisargumenthasbeenusedtojustifycapitalismanddiscouragegovernmentinterventionintradeandexchange.Smithbelievedthatprivatebusinessesseekingtheirowninterestsorganizetheeconomymostefficiently,“asifbyaninvisiblehand.”

Education

vIncreased 

literacy 

andeducationspreadthroughoutthecountry.Intowns,themiddleclassesestablishedlendinglibrariestodistributebooks,clubstodiscussideas,andcoffeehousestodebatepolitics.Newspapersbecamethemostpopularformofmedia,andmorethan50townsproducedtheirownnewspapersbytheendofthecentury.SomuchwrittenmaterialwasbeingproducedthatwriterSamuelJohnsonthoughtitnecessarytoattempttocodifythelanguagebypublishinghisDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage（1755）.Womensharedintheupsurgeinliteracy.Dozensofweeklymagazinesandinstallmentromancestories,whichcontainedastrongmoralmessageencouragingchastityandsobriety,weredirectedatwomen.

EnglishLanguage

vEnglishLanguage:

vNathanielBailey,UniversalEtymologicalEnglishDictionary（1721）;

DictionariumBritannicum（1730）/SamuelJohnson（1709-1784）thoughtitnecessarytoattempttocodifythelanguagebypublishinghisDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage（1755）.

vEnglishGrammar:

vJohnWallis,GrammaticaLinguaeAnglicanae（1653）;

WilliamLoughton,PracticalGrammaroftheEnglishTongue（1734）;

RobertLowth,AShortIntroductiontoEnglishGrammar（1726）;

JohnAsh,GrammaticalInstitutes（1763）;

JamesBuchanan,TheBritishGrammar（1762）;

LindleyMurray,EnglishGrammar（1795）

JohnBull

vJohnArbuthnot（1667-1735）,Scottishwriter,thesatireHistoryofJohnBull（1712;

asatireinwhichheportrayedJohnBullas“anhonestplain-dealingfellow,choleric,bold,andofaveryinconstanttemper.”Incartoons,stockyJohnBullisusuallydepictedwearingasquattophat,neckcloth,waistcoat,tailcoat,tightbreeches,andboots.JohnBull,astereotypepersonifyingthetypicalEnglishman,theEnglishpeople,ortheirgovernment.）

RiseofNovel

vThe 

newest 

form 

of 

literaturewasthenovel.Pamela;

orVirtueRewarded（1740）bySamuelRichardsonwasoneofthefirstworksofthisgenre.ThewritingsofnovelistJaneAustenwerepopulartowardtheendofthecentury.Theriseofthemiddleclasswasalsoseeninthemostimportantreligiousmovementoftheera,Methodism.FoundedbytheologianJohnWesley,MethodismencouragedthepopulationatlargetobelievepersonalsalvationcouldbeachievedwithoutrelyingontheformalritualsoftheChurchofEngland.Wesleydirectedhisenergiestolaborersandthepoor,buthismessagewasderivedfromtheattitudesofthemiddleclass.

Poverty

vPoverty 

dominated 

thelowerreachesofBritishsociety,especiallyasthepopulationgrewandfoodpricesroseinthemiddleofthecentury.Townsswarmedwithhomelessfamilies,thesick,andindividualswithdisabilities.Thegovernmentandcharitableorganizationsestablishedorphanagesandhospitals,aswellasworkhouseswheretheunemployedcouldfindtemporarywork.Whilewomenandchildrenwerelefttoliveinpoverty,the