Unit52TextITheComingTradeWars文档格式.docx
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srareearthmetals,haspushedupprices.Beijinghassetquotasforexportsofrareearths,whicharecriticaltothemanufactureofhigh-techproductsfromhybridcarstoflat-screenTVs.
BeijinghasdeniedtheallegationsintheWTOcase,sayingthatitenforcedthequotastoensuretherewasnoenvironmentaldamagecausedduetoexcessivemining.China'
sIndustryMinister,MiaoWei,toldstatemediaagencyXinhuathatthecountrywas"
activelypreparingtodefendourselves"
againsttheWTOcomplaintsanddeniedthequotasweretradeprotectionism.ChineseforeignministryspokesmanLiuWeiminsaid:
"
WethinkthepolicyisinlinewithWTOrules.Exportshavebeenstable.Chinawillcontinuetoexport,andwillmanagerareearthsbasedonWTOrules."
WhatkindoforganizationisWTO?
Whatkindofroledoesitplayinsettlingdisputesininternationaltrade?
TheWorldTradeOrganizationisaninternationalorganizationdesignedtosuperviseandliberalizeinternationaltrade.TheorganizationofficiallycommencedonJanuary1,1995undertheMarrakechAgreement,replacingtheGeneralAgreementonTariffsandTrade(GATT),whichcommencedin1947.
TheWTO’sprocedureforresolvingtradequarrelsundertheDisputeSettlementUnderstandingisvitalforenforcingtherulesandthereforeforensuringthattradeflowssmoothly.
Nametherecentcasesoftradeconflictsthatyouknow,andfindoutthemajorcomplaints.
In2009,WashingtonexpandedsanctionsagainstEuropeanfoodproductsinretaliationforEurope'
sboycottagainsthormone-treatedAmericanbeef.
Afterthe2008financialcrisis,U.S,governmentinitiatedabailoutplanofGMandChryslertotheexclusionofforeignfirms.Asaresponse,E.U.accusedU.S.ofviolatingtheso-called"
nationaltreatment"
clausesintradeagreements,andputWashingtononnoticethatitwillpursuelegaltraderemediesifthefinalbailoutpackagewasdiscriminatory.
Inanarticleentitled“TheDangersofTurningInward”,JeffreyE.Garten,theauthorof“TheComingTradeWars”(TextI),alarmsusofthedangerofeconomicprotectionism,whichistobedifferentiatedfrom“ordinaryprotectionism”?
Ordinaryprotectionismsuchastariffsandquotaswouldbeoneaspectofthisproblem,butitwon'
tbetheworstofitbecauseaweboftreatiesandtheenforcementcapabilities执法能力oftheWTOwillconstrainthemostegregious过分的behavior.Economicnationalismismoreinsidious暗中为害的becauseitisbroader,moresubtleandsubjecttofewerlegalconstraints.Itisaframeofmindthatcastsdoubtontheveryassumptionthatweliveinasingleinternationalmarket,andthatrelativelyopenbordersareavirtue.
Itisbasedonacalculationthatdespiteallthetalkabouteconomicinterdependence,nationscangoitalone,andcouldbebetteroffindoingso.Trueeconomicnationalistswantabovealltoprotectcapitalandjobsintheirowncountries.Theyseeglobalcommercenotasawin-winpropositionbutasacontestinwhichthereisavictorandaloser.Theyarethusnotfocusedoninternationalagreementstoopentheworldeconomy;
tothecontrary,theyareusuallyfiguringouthowtoavoidinternationalcommercialobligations.
Despitetheincreasingpaceofglobalization,recentyearswitnessedareversetrendofprotectionismininternationaltrade.
Forinstance:
In2009,E.U.reintroducedexportsubsidiesonbutterandcheeseandleviedtariffsonAmericanexportsofbiodieselfuel.Indiaraisedtariffsonsteelproducts.BrazilandArgentinapressedforahigherexternaltariffonimportsintoMercosur.
In2010,USAfiled2casesinWorldTradeOrganizationagainstChinaoverElectricalSteelandCreditCardpaymentproviders.USAallegedthatChinahadunfairlyputdutiesonUSmadeSteelandwaslockingoutMastercardandVisafromthecreditcardprocessingmarketinChina.
Themuch-publicized"
BuyAmerica"
provisionoftheU.S.stimuluspackagerestrictedpurchasesofconstruction-relatedgoodstomanyU.S.manufacturers.
OnOctober11th2011,America’sSenatepassedtheCurrencyExchangeRateOversightReformAct,whichwouldallowany“fundamentallymisaligned”currencytobelabelledasubsidysubjecttocountervailingduties.Inotherwords,steeptariffswouldbeimposedonimportsfromnationswithundervaluedcurrencies.ItwasaprovisionaimedsquarelyatChina'
syuan.
Whataretheregularprotectionistmeasures?
Tariffs,importquotas,anti-dumpinglegislation,subsidy,currencymanipulation,discriminatorygovernmentprocurement歧视性政府采购,stimulusandbailout,administrativebarriers行政壁垒(restrictiveimportrulesconcerningsuchissuesasfoodsafetyandenvironmentalstandard),etc.
Howdoesprotectionismjustifyitself?
Protectionistpolicyjustifiesitselfbyclaimingtoprotectnationaleconomyanddomesticmarket,toretainjobs,toprotectandsupportinfantindustries.
Often,proponentsofprotectionismsaythatfreetradeisfineintheory,butitdoesnotapplyintherealworld.Moderntradetheoryassumesperfectlycompetitivemarketswhosecharacteristicsdonotreflectreal-worldmarketconditions.Moreover,eventhoughprotectionistsmayconcedethateconomiclossesoccurwithtariffsandotherrestrictions,theyoftenarguethatnoneconomicbenefitssuchasnationalsecuritymorethanoffsettheeconomiclosses.
Whatarethenegativeconsequencesofprotectionism?
Sabotagefreetrade,losejobsinthelongrundespiteshort-termgain,ortoquoteAlanGreenspan,protectionismwillonlyleadto“anatrophyofourcompetitiveability....Iftheprotectionistrouteisfollowed,newer,moreefficientindustrieswillhavelessscopetoexpand,andoveralloutputandeconomicwelfarewillsuffer”.
TheComingTradeWars
Themassiveintrusionofgovernmentintonationaleconomicscouldsparkdisastrousprotectionism.
JeffreyE.Garten
【1】It’shardtofindatopeconomicofficial,economistorglobalbusinessleaderwhodoesn’trecognizetoday’sheighteneddangersofprotectionism.Butitisequallydifficulttoidentifyanyhigh-poweredeffortstoactivelywardofftheprospectofhighertariffs,quotasortrade-blockingregulations.Itisasiftalkingaboutthethreatisseenasenoughtodeteragiganticrollbackofglobalcommerce.Butrhetoricwillnotpreventatradewar,whichisnow,Ibelieve,morelikelythanithasbeenatanytimesincetheearly1970s,whencurrencieswerenolongerfixedtothevalueofgoldandbegantofloatagainstoneanother.
【2】Ahalf-centuryofsteadytradeliberalizationwasinjeopardyevenbeforethecurrentfinancialandeconomicmeltdown.PriortotheimplosionofBearStearns,theU.S.CongresshadtakenawayalmostallofPresidentBush’strade-negotiatingauthority,feelingthattheU.S.wasnolongergainingenoughfromnewtradeagreements,whilejobswerebeinglostandwagesundercut.Wellbefore“subprime”enteredthepopularlexicon,theDoharoundoftradenegotiationshadcollapsed,asrichandpoornationsfoughtovercontentiousissueslikeagriculture.TheriseofChinaandIndiahasraiseddeepconcernsoverimportpenetration,notjustintheU.S.andEuropebutalsoinemergingmarketslikeMexico.Forafewyearsnow,prominenteconomistswereraisingwarningflagsthatsupportforfreetradewasbeingerodedbytheperceptionthattradewascontributingtoever-greaterincomeinequalities.
【3】Now,however,thecollapseoftheglobalbankingsystem,adeepeningglobalrecessionandthemassiveintrusionofgovernmentsintonationaleconomies–atrendthatcan’thelpbutpoliticizeeconomicpolicydecisions–havealladdedfueltothefire.Unemploymentisgrowing,withmorethan70,000layoffsannouncedintheU.S.andEuropelastMondayalone,andglobaltradevolumeisnowdecreasing–bymorethan2percent,accordingtotheWorldBank–forthefirsttimeinaquartercentury.Containershipssitidleinports–demandisdown50percentyearonyear.America’sownexportsdeclined6percentlastyear,China’s9percentandJapan’sashocking35percent.Tradefinancing,theessentiallubricantoftheentirecommercialsystem,hasdriedup.Slowgrowthhasmeantmassiveindustrialovercapacityinheavyindustriessuchassteel,automobilesandelectronics,andwithglobalmanufacturingdroppingatanannualrateof20percent,thesituationwillgetmuchworse.Tobesure,wehaveyettoseeamajoroutbreakofprotectionism.Unlikecrisesinfinance,tradeproblemsareslowtoemerge,butoncethemomentumbegins,thetrendtakesyearstoreverse.
【4】Meanwhile,therearestrawsinthewind.Inthefirsthalfof2008,antidumpinginvestigationsaroundtheworldwereupatleast30percent.InDecember,WashingtonexpandedexistingsanctionsagainstselectedEUfoodproductsinretaliationforEurope’sboycottofAmericanhormone-treatedbeef,anolddisputetobesure,butonethatisbeingescalated.BrazilandArgentinaareexertingpressureonmembersofMercosur,theSouthAmericantradeblock,toraisethegroup’sexternaltariff.AndbecausetheWTO’spermissiblelimitsontariffslevelareoftenmuchhigherthantheactualtariffsthatcountrieshaveimposedinrecentyears,itisalltoopossiblethatgovernmentswillnowraisetariffsandstillbewithintheirlegallimits–ablowtotrade,whateverthelawsays.JustlastDecember,aftertheG20calledonmemberstoresistprotectionin