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PoKeungIp
ThisarticleexamineswhetherandtowhatextentConfucianismasaresilientChineseculturaltraditioncanbeusedasasoundbasisofbusinesspracticeandmanagementmodelforChinesecorporationsinthetwenty-firstcentury.UsingthecoreelementsofConfucianism,thearticleconstructsanotionofaConfucianFirmwithitsconceptsofthemoralperson(Junzi),corehumanmorality(ren,yi,li),andrelationships(guanxi),aswellasbenignsocialstructure(harmony),articulatedincorporateandorganizationalterms.TheConfucianFirmasanidealtypeconstructionislargelyavirtue-basedcorporationasitisinformedandconstitutedbyConfucianismwhich,deepdown,isavirtue-basedethics.ThebasiccharactersoftheConfucianFirm–authoritystructure,socialinteractionpattern,decision-makingprocess,leadership,stakeholderrelationships–aredescribed.Thefirmiscriticallyassessedwithrespecttoitsmorallegitimacyandrelevancetotoday’sChina.
AsChinahasbecomethefactoryoftheworld,ChinesefactoriesandcompanieshavebeenunderincreasingpressurefromtheglobalcommunityandNGOstocomplywithuniversallyacceptedrulesofbusinessethicsinlabourissues,environmentalresponsibilities,andanti-corruptionpractices,amongotherthings.China’srecentCorporateSocialResponsibility(CSR)developmentisoneconspicuousformofitsresponsetothisdemand.EffortshavebeenmadetoemulateanddevelopgoodbusinesspracticefashionedinCSRnormsandvisions.However,CSRasagloballypromotedconceptowesitsorigintoWesterncorporateexperience.DirectlytransportingCSRaspracticedbymanymultinationalsorWesterncompaniestoChinesecorporationsmaynotproduceagoodculturalfitandmayrenderthewholeCSRdevelopmentineffective.HowtointegrateCSRwithChineseculturebecomesstrategicallyimportantforcorporationsthattakebusinessethicsseriously.Today,theso-called‘‘human-based’’and‘‘virtuebased’’businesspracticesrootedinlocalculturalheritagehavebeentoutedasaChineseresponsetothisproblem.Thoughthereseemtobeoverlapsbetweenthe‘‘human-based’’or‘‘virtue-based’’corporationswithConfucianFirm,theformerconceptsareingeneralunsystematicandoftenvagueintheirdetails.Incontrast,theconceptproposedinthisarticleissystematicandricherincontent,makingitmoreeffectivetomakethecriticalassessmentofits
relevanceandlegitimacy.TheConfucianFirmistobeassessedagainstthereasonableuniversalnormsbasedontheconceptofhumanrights.
ThisinvestigationisparticularlyrelevantinthecontextoftheincreasingprominenceofChinaInc.inthewakeoftheriseofChinaasaglobalpower.WhatwouldaChinesecorporationconformingtobothuniversalethicalnormsandbuildingonitsethicalresourcesbelike?
HowrelevantisConfucianismtothebuildingofamodernChinesecorporationthathasagenuinecommitmenttoreasonablenormsofbusinessethics?
TheresultofthisdiscussionmayhaveimplicationsforotherChinesecommunities(Taiwan,HongKong,Singapore,andSouthKorea)whereConfuciantraditionisendorsedandpracticed.
Inwhatfollows,IlayoutthecorephilosophicalelementsofConfucianism,andexaminetheConfucianFirmasmanifestationsoftheseelements.Then,Iassessthemagainstthenormofhumanrightsfortheirrelevanceandlegitimacy.
Confucianism–thecoreelements
Confucianethicsisbasicallyhumanistic,obligationbased,andcollectivisticinnature(Chan,1963;
Ip,1996,2004).1Itishumanisticinthesensethatitsprimaryconcernisthehumancondition,andisdeeplythis-world-oriented.Transcendentissuesareconcernedonlytotheextentthattheyaffectthewell-beingofhumansociety.Itiscollectivisticbecauseitplacestheimportanceofcollectivevaluesandinterestsoverandaboveindividualvaluesandinterests.Byextension,socialrelationshipsandtheirharmonyareofutmostimportanceinhumansociety.Thefamilyisseenasthemostreveredandanalmostsacredformofhumanrelationshipsandinstitution(Cheng,1944).Inthislight,Confucianethicsentailsfamilialcollectivism.Itisobligation-basedbecausethemoralityofhumanconductisprimarilyarticulatedintermsofobligationsandobligationexchanges(Yang,1957),whichrequireanextensivepracticeofvirtues.Confucianvirtuesarehumanmoraltraitsthatneedtobeconsciouslycultivated.Underlyingthesevirtuesisthehumaninbornmoralcapacityofcompassion(ren)andsenseofrightness(yi),andreciprocity(shu).
ThecoreofConfucianethicsisconstitutedofthreeelements–ren,yi,andlithatdefinewhatismorallyacceptableinhumansociety.Renisacapacityofcompassionorbenevolenceforfellowhumans.Itisessentiallyexpressedinsocialrelationships.Etymologically,theChineseword‘‘ren’’isstructurallymadeupofthewords‘‘human’’and‘‘two,’’thushighlightingtheessentiallysocialembeddednessofren.Theexerciseofthiscapacityresultsinrenactsandconducts,aswellasmindsetsandmoralsentiments.InthelanguageofConfucianism,thesecompassionateacts,sentimentsandconductsarealsoseenastheactsofde,Confucianismvirtues.Inthissense,renisalsoade,albeitamega-virtuefromwhichothervirtuesarederived.Ofequalimportanceinmoralstatusisyi,whichisbasicallyasenseofmoralrightness,acapacitytodiscernappropriatenessandtherightdirectioninacts,relationships,andotherhumanmatters.Renandyioftenworkinunisontodefinemoralityandtoguideactions.Likeren,yiisanotherConfucianmega-virtue.(YioccupiesacentralpositioninthedoctrinesexpoundedbyMencius.2)Lirepresentsthemanyetiquettes,norms,andprotocolsinbothpersonalandinstitutionallives.Thelegitimacyofliisbasedonrenandyi,,andonlyunderthisconditionarepeopleobligatedtofollowit.Itmeansthatpeopledonothavetheobligationtoobservealiwhichviolatesren.Thoughliisnotinitselfavirtue,observingliisabasicvirtue.
Thequintessenceofren,thecapacityofcompassionwasarticulatedbyConfuciusaszhongshu–anactandattitudeofdealingwithpeople.Zhongshuis,ineffect,theConfucianformulationoftheGoldenRule.Therearetwosensesofzhongshu.Theweaksensesaysthatpeopleshouldnotdotoothersthingsthattheydonotwantotherstodotothem.Thereis,however,astrongsenseofzhongshuthatgoesbeyondwhatisprescribedbyothervarietiesoftheGoldenRuleinothercultures.Topracticezhongshuinthestrongsensemeansthatoneisobligatedtohelpotherstodevelopmorallyintheprocessofdevelopingone’smoralself,whichisseenasamajorlifegoalofaperson.Thismeansthatmoraldevelopmentandflourishingshouldnotbedoneinisolationbutinclosesynchronywithothers.Thus,zhongshurequirespeopletoco-developtheirmoralselvestogetherwithothers,tomorallyco-flourishthemselveswithothers.Thusseen,zhongshuentailsapositiveactofmoralengagementinothers’moralwelfareanddevelopment.
Together,ren,yi,andliformamoralcorethatspawnsandsanctionsanintricatewebofbehaviorguidingmoralvirtuesthateffectivelyserveasanormativesystemgoverningtheethicsofanindividual’spersonalandsociallives.Inadditiontothethreemega-virtues,thevirtuesofwisdomandtrustworthinessareequallyimportantintheConfucianmoralcorpus.Indeed,traditionalChinesecultureandmodernChinesecommunitiesdeemren,yi,li,wisdom,andtrustworthinessasthefivecardinalvirtuesofhumanity.Inadditiontothese,JunziisanothercrucialcomponentoftheConfucianmoralsystem.
Junzi,theexemplaryConfucianmoralperson,isenvisionedtopossessallthecardinalvirtuesespousedinConfucianism.Hesymbolizesthevirtuousofthevirtuous.Inadditiontopossessingthefivecardinalvirtues,Junzialsohasothervirtues,andisreadyandabletoexecutevirtuousactsrelentlesslyandconsistentlyoverhisentirelife.People,especiallytheintelligentsiaandtherulingelites,areurgedtoemulateJunziinthoughtanddeed,andcontinuouslypursuealifeexemplifiedbyJunzi.ThefollowingisalistofattributesofJunziarticulatedintheAnalectsbyConfuciushimself3:
righteous,diligenceinactionsandduties,actingbeforespeaking,prudenceinspeechandwords,actionaligningwithwords,demonstratingfilialpietytoparents,displayingbrotherlyrespectforbrothers,associatingwithmenofmoralprinciples,loveslearning,lovesothers,broadmindedandnon-partisan,takesvirtuesseriously,observesrulesofpropriety,harborsgoodwilltowardothers,accommodating,dignifiedbutnotproud,courageous,steadfast,self-reflective,selfmotivated,fair-minded,zhongshu–observeandexercisetheGoldenRule:
donotdotootherswhatyoudonotwantotherstodotoyou,hasaclearmoralsense,loyal,faithful,serious,principledandconsistent(non-arbitrary),openminded(notdogmatic),flexible(notobstinate),non-egotist,tolerant,reciprocates,compassionate,frugal,hardworkingandtenacious.
WhatarethemajorcharacteristicsofaConfucianperson?
Underfamilialcollectivism,apersonisessentiallysocialinnature.Thenatureofaperson’sselfisdefinedandconstitutedbythebundlesofhisorhersocialrelationshipsintheworld.Withhisorhersociallyembeddedself,aperson’sidentityandplaceintheworldaretobeunderstoodthroughhisorhersocialattachmentsandpositionsinthesocialhierarchy.Theimplicationofthisconceptionisclear.Duetoitssociallyembeddednature,aperson’sinterests,goals,andwell-beinghavetobesociallyshaped,nurtured,andconstrainedbytherelationshipsthepersonishaving.His