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31March1727（1727-03-31）（aged 

84）

20March1726][1]

Kensington,Middlesex,England

Residence

England

Nationality

English

Fields

physics,mathematics,astronomy,naturalphilosophy,alchemy,Christiantheology

Institutions

UniversityofCambridge

RoyalSociety

RoyalMint

Almamater

TrinityCollege,Cambridge

Academicadvisors

IsaacBarrow[2]

BenjaminPulleyn[3][4]

Notablestudents

RogerCotes

WilliamWhiston

Known 

for

Newtonianmechanics

Universalgravitation

Infinitesimalcalculus

Optics

Binomialseries

Newton'

smethod

Philosophiæ

NaturalisPrincipiaMathematica

Influences

HenryMore[5]

PolishBrethren[6]

Influenced

NicolasFatiodeDuillier

JohnKeill

Signature

Notes

HismotherwasHannahAyscough.Hishalf-niecewasCatherineBarton.

SirIsaacNewtonFRS（4January1643–31March1727[OS:

25December1642–20March1726]）[1]wasanEnglishphysicist,mathematician,astronomer,naturalphilosopher,alchemist,andtheologian,andisconsideredbymanyscholarsandmembersofthegeneralpublictobeoneofthemostinfluentialpeopleinhumanhistory.HisPhilosophiæ

NaturalisPrincipiaMathematica（Latinfor"

MathematicalPrinciplesOfNaturalPhilosophy"

;

usuallycalledthePrincipia）,publishedin1687,isprobablythemostimportantscientificbookeverwritten.Itlaysthegroundworkformostofclassicalmechanics.Inthiswork,Newtondescribeduniversalgravitationandthethreelawsofmotion,whichdominatedthescientificviewofthephysicaluniverseforthenextthreecenturies.NewtonshowedthatthemotionsofobjectsonEarthandofcelestialbodiesaregovernedbythesamesetofnaturallaws,bydemonstratingtheconsistencybetweenKepler'

slawsofplanetarymotionandhistheoryofgravitation;

thusremovingthelastdoubtsaboutheliocentrismandadvancingtheScientificRevolution.

Newtonbuiltthefirstpracticalreflectingtelescope[7]anddevelopedatheoryofcolourbasedontheobservationthataprismdecomposeswhitelightintothemanycoloursthatformthevisiblespectrum.Healsoformulatedanempiricallawofcoolingandstudiedthespeedofsound.

Inmathematics,NewtonsharesthecreditwithGottfriedLeibnizforthedevelopmentofdifferentialandintegralcalculus.Healsodemonstratedthegeneralisedbinomialtheorem,developedNewton'

smethodforapproximatingtherootsofafunction,andcontributedtothestudyofpowerseries.

Newtonwasalsohighlyreligious.HewasanunorthodoxChristian,andduringhislifetimeactuallywrotemoreonBiblicalhermeneuticsandoccultstudiesthanonscienceandmathematics,thesubjectsheismainlyassociatedwith.

Contents

[hide]

∙1Life

o1.1Earlylife

o1.2Middleyears

▪1.2.1Mathematics

▪1.2.2Optics

▪1.2.3Mechanicsandgravitation

o1.3Laterlife

o1.4Afterdeath

▪1.4.1Fame

▪1.4.2Commemorations

o1.5Inpopularculture

∙2Religiousviews

o2.1Effectonreligiousthought

o2.2Viewsoftheendoftheworld

∙3Enlightenmentphilosophers

∙4Counterfeiters

∙5Lawsofmotion

∙6Appleanalogy

∙7Writings

∙8Seealso

∙9Footnotesandreferences

∙10References

∙11Furtherreading

o11.1Religion

o11.2Primarysources

∙12Externallinks

o12.1Writingsbyhim

Life

Earlylife

Mainarticle:

EarlylifeofIsaacNewton

IsaacNewtonwasbornon4January1643[OS:

25December1642][1]atWoolsthorpeManorinWoolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth,ahamletinthecountyofLincolnshire.AtthetimeofNewton'

sbirth,EnglandhadnotadoptedtheGregoriancalendarandthereforehisdateofbirthwasrecordedasChristmasDay,25December1642.Newtonwasbornthreemonthsafterthedeathofhisfather,aprosperousfarmeralsonamedIsaacNewton.Bornprematurely,hewasasmallchild;

hismotherHannahAyscoughreportedlysaidthathecouldhavefitinsideaquartmug（≈1.1litres）.WhenNewtonwasthree,hismotherremarriedandwenttolivewithhernewhusband,theReverendBarnabusSmith,leavinghersoninthecareofhismaternalgrandmother,MargeryAyscough.TheyoungIsaacdislikedhisstepfatherandheldsomeenmitytowardshismotherformarryinghim,asrevealedbythisentryinalistofsinscommitteduptotheageof19:

"

ThreateningmyfatherandmotherSmithtoburnthemandthehouseoverthem."

[8]WhileNewtonwasonceengagedinhislateteenstoaMissStorey,henevermarried,beinghighlyengrossedinhisstudiesandwork.[9][10][11]

Newtonina1702portraitbyGodfreyKneller

IsaacNewton（Bolton,SarahK.FamousMenofScience.NY:

ThomasY.Crowell&

Co.,1889）

Fromtheageofabouttwelveuntilhewasseventeen,NewtonwaseducatedatTheKing'

sSchool,Grantham（wherehissignaturecanstillbeseenuponalibrarywindowsill）.Hewasremovedfromschool,andbyOctober1659,hewastobefoundatWoolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth,wherehismother,widowedbynowforasecondtime,attemptedtomakeafarmerofhim.Hehatedfarming.[12]HenryStokes,masterattheKing'

sSchool,persuadedhismothertosendhimbacktoschoolsothathemightcompletehiseducation.Motivatedpartlybyadesireforrevengeagainstaschoolyardbully,hebecamethetop-rankedstudent.[13]

InJune1661,hewasadmittedtoTrinityCollege,Cambridgeasasizar—asortofwork-studyrole.[14]Atthattime,thecollege'

steachingswerebasedonthoseofAristotle,butNewtonpreferredtoreadthemoreadvancedideasofmodernphilosophers,suchasDescartes,andofastronomerssuchasCopernicus,Galileo,andKepler.In1665,hediscoveredthegeneralisedbinomialtheoremandbegantodevelopamathematicaltheorythatwouldlaterbecomeinfinitesimalcalculus.SoonafterNewtonhadobtainedhisdegreeinAugust1665,theuniversitytemporarilyclosedasaprecautionagainsttheGreatPlague.AlthoughhehadbeenundistinguishedasaCambridgestudent,[15]Newton'

sprivatestudiesathishomeinWoolsthorpeoverthesubsequenttwoyearssawthedevelopmentofhistheoriesoncalculus,opticsandthelawofgravitation.In1667,hereturnedtoCambridgeasafellowofTrinity.[16]Fellowswererequiredtobecomeordainedpriests,somethingNewtondesiredtoavoidduetohisunorthodoxviews.LuckilyforNewton,therewasnospecificdeadlineforordinationanditcouldbepostponedindefinitely.TheproblembecamemoreseverelaterwhenNewtonwaselectedfortheprestigiousLucasianChair.Forsuchasignificantappointment,ordainingnormallycouldnotbedodged.Nevertheless,NewtonmanagedtoavoiditbymeansofaspecialpermissionfromCharlesII（see"

Middleyears"

sectionbelow）.

Middleyears

Mathematics

sworkhasbeensaid"

todistinctlyadvanceeverybranchofmathematicsthenstudied"

.[17]

Hisworkonthesubjectusuallyreferredtoasfluxionsorcalculusisseen,forexample,inamanuscriptofOctober1666,nowpublishedamongNewton'

smathematicalpapers.[18]Arelatedsubjectwasinfiniteseries.Newton'

smanuscript"

Deanalysiperaequationesnumeroterminoruminfinitas"

（"

Onanalysisbyequationsinfiniteinnumberofterms"

）wassentbyIsaacBarrowtoJohnCollinsinJune1669:

inAugust1669BarrowidentifieditsauthortoCollinsas"

MrNewton,afellowofourCollege,andveryyoung 

...butofanextraordinarygeniusandproficiencyinthesethings"

.[19]

NewtonlaterbecameinvolvedinadisputewithLeibnizoverpriorityinthedevelopmentofinfinitesimalcalculus.MostmodernhistoriansbelievethatNewtonandLeibnizdevelopedinfinitesimalcalculusindependently,althoughwithverydifferentnotations.OccasionallyithasbeensuggestedthatNewtonpublishedalmostnothingaboutituntil1693,anddidnotgiveafullaccountuntil1704,whileLeibnizbeganpublishingafullaccountofhismethodsin1684.（Leibniz'

snotationand"

differentialMethod"

nowadaysrecognisedasmuchmoreconvenientnotations,wereadoptedbycontinentalEuropeanmathematicians,andafter1820orso,alsobyBritishmathematicians.）Suchasuggestion,however,failstonoticethecontentofcalculuswhichcriticsofNewton'

stimeandmoderntimeshavepointedoutinBook1ofNewton'

sPrincipiaitself（published1687）andinitsforerunnermanuscripts,suchasDemotucorporumingyrum（"

Onthemotionofbodiesinorbit"

）,of1684.ThePrincipiaisnotwritteninthelanguageofcalculuseitherasweknowitorasNewton'

s（later）'

dot'

notationwouldwriteit.Buthisworkextensivelyusesaninfinitesimalcalculusingeometricform,basedonlimitingvaluesoftheratiosofvanishingsmallquantities:

inthePrincipiaitselfNewtongavedemonstrationofthisunderthenameof'

themethodoffirstandlastratios'

[20]andexplainedwhyheputhisexpositionsinthisform,[21]remarkingalsothat'

herebythesamethingisperformedasbythemethodofindivisibles'

.

Becauseofthis,thePrincipiahasbeencalled"

abookdensewiththetheoryandapplicationoftheinfinitesimalcalculus"

inmoderntimes[22]and"

lequelestpresquetoutdececalcul"

（'

nearlyallofitisofthiscalculus'

）inNewton'

stime.[23]Hisuseofmethodsinvolving"

oneormoreordersoftheinfinitesimallysmall"

ispresentinhisDeMotuCorporuminGyrumof1684[24]andinhispapersonmotion"

duringthetwodecadespreceding1684"

.[25]

Newtonhadbeenreluctanttopublishhiscalculusbecausehefearedcontroversyandcriticism.[26]HehadaverycloserelationshipwithSwissmathematicianNicolasFatiodeDuillier,whofromthebeginningwasimpressedbyNewton'

sgravitationaltheory.In1691,Duillierplann