Conversational implicatureWord下载.docx

Conversational implicatureWord下载.docx

《Conversational implicatureWord下载.docx》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《Conversational implicatureWord下载.docx（15页珍藏版）》请在冰豆网上搜索。

Howdoesthehearergetfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning.

●Somephilosophersorlogiciansconcludethatnaturallanguageisinadequatefortheprecise,logicalrepresentationofmeaning,and.soitisnecessarytodeviseideallanguagestosolvetheproblem.Thusaccordingtologicalsemantics,understandingthemeaningofnaturallanguageisunderstandingalogicalrelationshipbetweentwopropositions.

✧

Thelogicalrepresentationofconjunction:

pq

E.g.Letyoucutmyhedgebesymbolizedbyp;

andI'

lltakeyououttodinnerbesymbolizedbyq.Thenthelogicalexpressionpqwillstandfor:

ifp,thenq.

Ifyoucutmyhedge（p）,I'

lltakeyououttodinner（q）.

✧Thelogicalrepresentationofconjunction:

p&

q

Thislogicalexpressionstandsfor:

ifpistrueandqistrue,thenp&

qistrue.Ifeitherporqisnottrue（i.e.false）,thentheconjunctionofpandqisnecessarilyfalse.

E.g.TheduckranuptoMary（p）andlickedher（q）.

✧Butthisisnotalwaystrueinreallifeasintheaboveexample.Wheneverp&

qistrue,itlogicallyfollowsthatq&

pistrue:

TheducklickedMary（q）andranuptoher（p）.

●Grice（1975）publishedanarticle"

Logicandconversation"

whichraisesthequestionhowitispossibleforatheorytodealwiththefactthatnaturallanguageutterancesdonotconveythesamemeaningthatthecorrespondinglogicalpropositionwould.Hemadeanattempttoofferasolution:

Thephilosopher'

sassumptionthatnaturallanguageexpressionsdivergefromtheformaldevicesofthelogiciansiswrong.Inotherwords,naturallanguageexpressionscannotbefullyexplainedbyformallogic.

Theargumentisthatthereasonwhypeoplemakeaproposition（p）butoftenmeanmorethanthat（q）isthatthe"

divergent"

or"

extra"

meaningsthatseemtocropupwhencertainkindsofnaturallanguagestatementsaremadearenotduetothesyntacticorsemanticrulesoflanguages,buttorulesandprinciplesofconversation.

1.2Definingimplicatures

●Whatisintendedbythespeaker,ortheintendedspeakermeaning.

●Invisiblemeaningorimplicitmeaning.

●Additionalconveyedmeaningthatismorethanwhatwordsmean.

●Whatiscommunicatedincontext,notthemeaningofwords,phrasesorsentences.

2.Grice'

stheoryofconversationalimplicature

meaning-nn

Twocomponents

TheCooperativePrinciple（CP）

Thefirsttheoryofmeaning-nnisregardedasatheoryofcommunicationwhichmightbeachievedintheabsenceofanyconventionalmeansforexpressingtheintendedmessage.Thesecondtheoryisessentiallyatheoryabouthowpeopleuselanguage.

2.1Meaning-nn

●Naturalmeaningandnon-naturalmeaning（meaning-nn）

Grice'

sanalysisofmeaningismainlypresentedinhisarticles,Meaning,Utterer'

sMeaningandIntention,andMeaningRevisited（1978,1981,1989）

a）Thesespotsmeanmeasles.

b）Cloudsmeantitisgoingtorain.

c）Hisgesturemeantthathewasfedup.

d）Hiscoughmeantthatthesupervisorhadcometotheclassroombuilding.

Questions:

Isthereanydifferencebetweenthemeaningoftheverbmeanina）andb）andthatoftheverbmeaninc）andd）?

Naturalmeaning:

factiveornotinvolvingintention

XmeansthatpandXmeantthatpentailp.（relatedto"

natural"

signs）

Non-naturalmeaning:

non-factiveandintentioninvolved

XmeansthatpandXmeantthatpdonotentailp.（relatedto"

conventionalsigns"

）

●Meaningandintention

Sincetheintentionofthespeakerhastobeinvolvedincommunication,ananalysisofmeaningisnecessarilydoneintermsofintention.

Smeant-nnsomethingbyX:

ThismeansthatspeakerintendstheutteranceofXtoproducesomeeffectinanaudiencebymeansoftherecognitionofhisintention.ForGrice,meaninghastobeinterpretedintermsofthehearerandsomeaningandintentionwerebroughttogetherinhisanalysis.ThisisthecrucialpointinunderstandingGrice'

stheoryandSearle'

sone.

Searle'

stheory:

meaning=intentionrepresentedbythespeaker（intentiontorepresent）

meaning=intentioninterpretedbythehearer（intentiontocommunicate）

SowhatisanintentionbyGrice'

sinterpretation?

●Grice'

smechanismforpragmaticinference

XintendstobringaboutaresponseonthepartofYbygettingYtorecognizethatXintendstobringaboutthatresponse;

YdoesrecognizeX'

sintention,andistherebygivensomesortofreasontorespondjustasXintendshimto.

E.g.Itiscoldinhere.

Setting:

inaclassroom

Utterance:

itiscoldinhere.

ThespeakerXintendstomakearequestofthehearerYtoclosethedoor.

ThehearerYisabletorecognizethisintentionbydoingtheactionofclosingthedoor.

Austin'

sillocutionarymeaning=Grice'

sperlocutionarymeaning

sview:

meaningIsamatterofintentionandamatterofconventionaswell.（Searle,1979）

●Conversationalimplicatureandconventionalimplicature

Gricedistinguishedwhatissaidfromwhatisimplicated.Bywhatisimplicateditmeansanimplicatureaswehavedefinedintheabove.Gricewentfurthertodistinguishtwodifferentsortsofimplicature:

conventionalimplicatureandconversationalimplicature.

Conventionalimplicature:

animplicaturethatarisesnotdependingonparticularcontextoflanguageuse;

ornon-truthconditionalinferencesthatarenotderivedfromsuperordinatepragmaticprinciplesliketheGriceanmaximsbutaresimplyattachedbyconventiontoparticularlexicalitems（Levinson1983）;

oritisrelatedtotheuseofcertainwordsregardlessofthecontextinwhichitoccurs.

Adverbs:

already,also,barely,either,only,scarcely,still,too,yet

Connectives:

but,nevertheless,so,therefore,yet

Implicativeverbs:

bother,condescend,continue,fail,manage,stop

Subordinatingconjunctions:

although,despite（thefactthat）,eventhough

a）Sheispoorbuthonest.

cf:

Sheispoorandhonest.

b）HeisanEnglishman;

heis,therefore,brave.

HeisanEnglishmanandheisbrave.

c）EvenJohnlikesMary.

Butmeansthatwhatfollowswillruncountertoexpectations;

orwhatfollowswillbeincontrastwithwhatwillbeexpectedfromwhatprecedes.

Thereforemeansthatwhatfollowswillbetheconsequenceofwhatprecedes.

Evenmeansthatthecasewillbemorethanmightbeexpected.

Properties:

non-cancelableanddetachable

Controversialissues:

a）Isaconventionalimplicatureanon-troth-conditionalmeaningornot?

Sheispoorbuthonest.（Whatisimplicated?

Sheispoorandhonest.（Whatissaid?

Thesetwosentenceshavethesameproposition,thatis,theyhavethesametruthvalue.Ifso,isaconventionalimplicaturepartofwhatissaid?

b）Isaconventionalimplicatureequaltosemanticpresupposition?

Thesentence"

Sheispoorbuthonest"

implicatesthatthepoorpeoplearenothonest;

butothersmayarguethatthissentenceissaidbypresupposingthatthepoorpeoplearenothonest,otherwiseitwouldnotmakesense.

c）Isaconventionalimplicaturejustamatterofimplicaturebyintuition?

Arthurwasalawyerbuthewashonest.

EventhoughArthurwasalawyer,hewashonest.

Arthurwasalawyer,neverthelesshewashonest.

Thesethreesentencessaynothingmorethan"

Arthurwasalawyerandhewashonest"

.Ifthisistrue,thenwemayclaimthatconventionalimplicatureisnotdetachable（becausethesesentencesexpressthesamesemanticcontent）.Soconventionalimplicaturerestsentirelyonintuition.

d）Dodifferentwordsgenerateimplicatureswithdifferenttruthconditions?

Johnisaphilosopherbutheisrich.

Johnisaphilosophersoheisrich.

Ifthisistrue,doyoustillcallconventionalimplicatureanon-truth-conditionalinferenceornotpartofwhatissaid?

Conversationalimplicature:

non-troth-conditionalinferences:

derivedfrompragmaticprinciplesinaparticularcontextofutterance.AccordingtoJ.Mey（2001）,"

conversationalimplicatureconcernsthewayweunderstandanutteranceinconversationinaccordancewithwhatweexpecttohear"

.

a）Whattimeisit?

b）Thebusjustwentbyorthemilkmanhasjustcome.

Howdoesa）understandswhatb）meansinthisparticularcontext?

AsLeechremarks,"

interpretinganutteranceisultimatelyamatterof'

guesswork,or（touseamoredignifiedterm）hypothesisformation"

（1983）.

a）When'

sAuntRose'

sbirthday?

b）It'

ssometimeinApril.

Doestheheareranswerthespeaker'

squestion?

Howdoesa）interpretwhatb）means?

Ifb）doesnotknowexactlywhichdayAuntRose'

sbirthdayoccurs,whydoesheorshechoosessuchavagueexpression?

Theguessworkinvolvescooperationbetweenthespeakerandthehearerinconversation;

assumptionthatcertainprinciplesareinoperation.Buttheguessworkmayberightorwrongbecausetheimplicatureisgeneratedbythespeakerandtheinferenceisinterpretedbythehearer.Animplicaturemayleadtodifferentinferencesinaparticularcontext.

2.2TheCooperativePrinciple

Basedonhisobservationsofmeaningandinordertoexplainthemechanismsbywhichpeopleinterpretconversationalimplicatureortoexplainwhypeopleoftenmeanmorethanwhattheysay,Grice（1975）proposedtheCooperativePrincipleandintroducedfourconversationalmaxims