EducationalPsychologyWord文件下载.docx

EducationalPsychologyWord文件下载.docx

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Class:

2

Grade:

3

Name:

Tommy

No.

Abstract:

Psychologyisascience,andteachingisanart;

andsciencesnevergenerateartsdirectlyoutofthemselves.Anintermediateinventivemindmustmakethatapplication,byusingitsoriginality.

Keywords:

educationalpsychology,methodology,Behavioralperspective,Cognitiveperspective,Constructivistperspective.

Introduction

Educationalpsychologydoesnotclaimpriorityinthesystematicanalysisofeducationalprocesses.PhilosophersofeducationsuchasDemocritus,Quintilian,Vives,andComenius,hadexamined,classified,andjudgedthemethodsofeducationcenturiesbeforethebeginningsofpsychologyinthelate1800s.Instead,aspirationsofthenewdisciplinerestedontheapplicationofthescientificmethodsofobservationandexperimentationtoeducationalquestions.

Evenintheearliestyearsofthediscipline,educationalpsychologistsrecognizedthelimitationsofthisnewapproach.InhisfamousseriesoflecturesTalkstoTeachersonPsychology,publishedin1899andnowregardedasthefirsteducationalpsychologytextbook,thepioneeringAmericanpsychologistWilliamJamescommentedthat:

Psychologyisascience,andteachingisanart;

andsciencesnevergenerateartsdirectlyoutofthemselves.Anintermediateinventivemindmustmakethatapplication,byusingitsoriginality.

EdwardL.Thorndikedevelopedthetheoryofinstrumentalconditioningand,insodoing,createdthefoundationofeducationalpedagogy.Hismethodemphasizeduseofrepetition,useofrewardsandpunishments,andtheuseoftimeperiodbreaksbetweenteachingsimilarsubjects.ThoughThorndike'

stheoryhasnotbeenpopularsincethe1960sintheUnitedStates,histhoughtpresagedlaterworkonprogrammedImasterylearning,andcomputerbasedlearning:

instruction.

If,byamiracleofmechanicalingenuity,abookcouldbesoarrangedthatonlytohimwhohaddonewhatwasdirectedonpageonewouldpagetwobecomevisible,andsoon,muchthatnowrequirespersonalinstructioncouldbemanagedbyprint.

Thorndike'

sviewwassimilartoB.F.Skinner'

soperantconditioningtheory.Commonassumptionsincludedthesimilaritiesbetweenhumanbeingsandanimalsregardinglearningfromstimulusandresponsemechanisms,andthenotionthatanewborninfantarrivesintolifewitha"

blankslate."

Theirbehavioristicideasformedthegenerallyacceptedfoundationoftheeducationalsciencefieldforfiftyyears.

Theoriesineducationalpsychology

Twofundamentalassumptionsthatunderlieformaleducationalsystems,agreedonbyalltheorists,arethatstudents（a）retainknowledgeandskillstheyacquireinschool,and（b）canapplytheminsituationsoutsidetheclassroom.Thereisconsiderableevidencethatthefirstassumptionisvalid.Evenwhenstudentsreportnotusingtheknowledgeacquiredinschool,aconsiderableportionisretainedformanyyears,andlongtermretentionisdependentontheinitiallevelofmastery.Thereislessconsensusonthecrucialquestionofhowmuchknowledgeacquiredinschooltransferstotasksencounteredoutsideformaleducationalsettings.Somearguethatevidenceforthistypeof"

fartransfer"

isscarce,haleothersclaimthereisabundantevidenceoffartransferinspecificdomains.SuchvariationwasinfactpredictedbyThorndike'

searlyworkonlearning.Heobservedthattransferoflearningoccurswhenthereare"

commonelements"

inthetwodomains.Theidentificationofwhatconstitutethosecommonelements,however,hasbeendifficulttoachieve.

Beyondthesebasicassumptions,thereisanaturalvarianceofopinionamongtheoristsconcerningthebestapproachtousetoobtaindesiredoutcomes.Heateddebatehastakenplacebetweenthosethatadheretodifferentapproaches.ApproachestolearningcommonlyusedineducationalpsychologyincludeBehaviorism,Cognitivism,SocialCognitivism,andConstructivism.

Behavioralperspective

Appliedbehavioranalysis,asetoftechniquesbasedonthebehavioralprinciplesofoperantconditioning,hasbeenfoundeffectiveinarangeofeducationalsettings.Forexample,teacherscanimprovestudentbehaviorbysystematicallyrewardingstudentswhofollowclassroomruleswithpraise,stars,ortokensexchangeableforsundryitems.

Despitedemonstratedefficacyofrewardsinchangingbehavior,theiruseineducationhasbeencriticizedbyproponentsofself-determinationtheory,whoclaimthatpraiseandotherrewardsundermineintrinsicmotivation.Thereisevidencethattangiblerewardsdecreaseintrinsicmotivationinspecificsituations,suchaswhenthestudentalreadyhasahighlevelofintrinsicmotivationtoperformthegoalbehavior.Buttheresultsshowingdetrimentaleffectsarecounterbalancedbyevidencethat,inothersituations,suchaswhenrewardsaregivenforattainingagraduallyincreasingstandardofperformance,rewardsenhanceintrinsicmotivation.

Cognitiveperspective

Amongeducationalpsychologists,thecognitiveperspectiveismorewidelyheldthanthebehavioralperspective,perhapsbecauseitflexiblyadmitscausallyrelatedmentalconstructssuchastraits,beliefs,memories,motivations,andemotions.Cognitivetheoriespositmemorystructuresthatarethoughttodeterminehowinformationisperceived,processed,stored,retrieved,andforgotten.Cognitivepsychologiststheorizethatmemorystructuresareseparatebutlinkedtovisualandverbalsystems,inwayssuchasdescribedbyPavia’s"

dualcodingtheory,"

whichhasbeenusedtoexplainhowpeoplelearnfrommultimediapresentations.

ThreeexperimentsreportedbyKrug,DavisandGloverdemonstratedtheadvantageofdelayinga2ndreadingofatextpassagebyoneweek（distributed）comparedwithnodelaybetweenreadings（massed）.

The"

spacedlearning"

effect,acognitivephenomenonstronglysupportedbypsychologicalresearch,hasbroadapplicabilitywithineducation.

Problemsolving,regardedbymanycognitivepsychologistsasfundamentaltolearning,isalsoanimportantresearchtopicineducationalpsychology.Researchersinthisareahavesuggestedthatpracticeinproblemsolvingestablishesconnectionsbetweenthetypeofproblemandtheappropriate"

schema"

forsolvingit.

Muchresearchactivityineducationalpsychologyhasfocusedondevelopingtheoriesofself-regulatedlearning（SRL）andmetcognition.Thesetheoriesworkfromthecentralpremisethateffectivelearnersareactiveagentswhoconstructknowledgebysettinggoals,analyzingtasks,planningstrategies,andmonitoringtheirunderstanding.

Socialcognitiveperspective

Socialcognitivetheoryisahighlyinfluentialfusionofbehavioral,cognitive,andsocialelementsthatwasinitiallydevelopedbyeducationalpsychologistAlbertBandura.Initsearlier,neo-behavioralincarnationcalled"

sociallearningtheory,"

Banduraemphasizedtheprocessofobservationallearninginwhichalearner'

sbehaviorchangesasaresultofobservingothers'

behavioranditsconsequences.Thetheoryidentifiedseveralfactorsthatdeterminewhetherobservingamodelwillaffectbehavioralorcognitivechange.Thesefactorsincludethelearner'

sdevelopmentalstatus,theperceivedprestigeandcompetenceofthemodel,theconsequencesreceivedbythemodel,therelevanceofthemodel'

sbehaviorsandconsequencestothelearner'

sgoals,andthelearner'

sself-efficacy.Theconceptofself-efficacy,whichplayedanimportantroleinlaterdevelopmentsofthetheory,referstothelearner'

sbeliefinhisorherabilitytoperformthemodeledbehavior.

AnexperimentbySchunkandHanson,thatstudiedstudentsinsecondgradewhohadpreviouslyexperienceddifficultyinlearningsubtraction,illustratesthetypeofresearchstimulatedbysociallearningtheory.Onegroupofstudentsobservedasubtractiondemonstrationbyamathematicsteacher,andthenparticipatedinaninstructionalprogramonsubtraction.Asecondgroupobservedothersecondgradestudentsperformingthesamesubtractionprocedures,andthenparticipatedinthesameinstructionalprogram.Thestudentswhoobservedpeermodelsscoredhigheronasubtractionpost-test,andalsoreportedgreaterconfidenceintheirsubtractionability.Theresultswereinterpretedassupportingthehypothesisthatperceivedsimilarityofthemodeltothelearnerincreasesself-efficacy,leadingtomoreeffectivelearningofmodeledbehavior.Itissupposedthatpeermodelingisparticularlyeffectiveforstudentswhohavelowself-efficacy.

Constructivistperspective

Constructivismreferstoacategoryoflearningtheoriesinwhichemphasisisplacedontheagencyandpriorknowledgeofthelearner,andoftenonthesocialandculturaldeterminantsofthelearningprocess.Educationalpsychologistsdistinguishindividual（orpsychological）constructivism,identifiedwithPiaget'

slearningtheory,fromsocialconstructivism.AdominantinfluenceonthelattertypeisLevVygotsky'

sworkonsocioculturallearning,describinghowinteractionswithadults,morecapablepeers,andcognitivetoolsareinternalizedtoformmentalconstructs.

Vygotsky'

sversionofconstructivisttheoryhasledtotheviewthatbehavior,skills,attitudes,andbeliefsareinherentlysituated,thatis,boundtoaspecificsocioculturalsetting.Accordingtothisview,thelearnerisacculturatedthroughsocialinteractionswithinacommunityofpractice.ElaboratingonVygotsky'

stheory,JeromeBrunerandothereducationalpsychologistsdevelopedtheconceptof"

instructionalscaffolding,"

inwhichthesocialorinformationenvironmentofferssupportsforlearningthataregraduallywithdrawnasth