《新编简明英语语言学教程》Word下载.docx

《新编简明英语语言学教程》Word下载.docx

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●刘润清，（1995），《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。

●Fromkin,V.&

R.Rodman,（1998）,AnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition,Orlando,Florida:

Holt,Ranehart&

Winston,Inc.

Chapter1.Introduction

1.Whatislanguage?

Languagecanmean

●whatapersonsays（e.g.badlanguage,expressions）

●thewayofspeakingorwriting（e.g.Shakespeare’slanguage,Luxun’slanguage）

●aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting（e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage）

●theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity（e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage）

●thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages（e.g.Hestudieslanguage）

●atoolforhumancommunication.（socialfunction）

●asetofrules.（rule-governed）

Sapir’sdefinition（1921）

●“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”

Hall’sdefinition（1968）

●Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”

Chomsky’sdefinition（1957）

●“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof（finiteorinfinite）sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”

Languagecanbegenerallydefinedas

asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Languageisasystem

●Systematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;

can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.

Languageisarbitrary

●Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.

Languageissymbolicinnature

●Symbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare

Languageisprimarilyvocal

●Vocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;

writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.

Languageishuman-specific

●Human-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.

Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage（CharlesHockett）

•Arbitrariness

•Productivity/Creativity

•Duality

•Displacement

•Culturaltransmission

Arbitrariness

----Nological（motivatedorintrinsic）connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.

●Onomatopoeicwords（whichimitatenaturalsounds）aresomewhatmotivated（English:

rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:

putong,shasha,dingdang…）

●Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…

Productivity/creativity

----Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.

●Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.

●Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;

beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires

Duality（doublearticulation）

●Lowerlevel----sounds（meaningless）

●Higherlevel----meaning（largerunitsofmeaning）

●Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning（words）,andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.（wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.

Displacement

----Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:

realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.

●Agibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyear

●Thereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.

Culturaltransmission

----Languageisculturallytransmitted（throughteachingandlearning;

ratherthanbyinstinct）.

●Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.

●AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.

●Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.

Functionsoflanguage

●Phatic:

establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.

●Directive:

getthehearertodosomething.

●Informative:

giveinformationaboutfacts.

●Interrogative:

getinformationfromothers.

●Expressive:

expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.

●Evocative:

createcertainfeelingsinthehearer（amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease）

●Performative:

languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.

Theoriginoflanguage

●Thedivine-origintheory----LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.

●Theinventiontheory----imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.

●Theevolutionarytheory----theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.

许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:

语言是一种符号系统.

●当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;

●当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;

●当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.

2.Whatislinguistics?

----Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

----Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.

Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies

●Exhaustiveness/adequacy

●Consistency

●Economy

●Objectivity

Thescopeormajorbranchesoflinguistics

●Theoreticallinguistics

●Phonetics

●Phonology

●Morphology

●Syntax

●Semantics

●Useoflinguistics

●Appliedlinguistics

●Sociolinguistics

●Psycholinguistics

……

Theoreticallinguistics

●Phonetics----speechsound（description,classification,transcription）:

articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.

●Phonology----soundpatternsoflanguages

●Morphology----theformofwords

●Syntax----therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.

●Semantics----themeaningoflanguage（whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse----Pragmatics）

Useoflinguistics

●Appliedlinguistics----linguisticsandlanguageteaching

●Sociolinguistics----socialfactors（e.g.class,education）affectlanguageuse

●Psycholinguistics----linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocess

●Stylistics----linguisticandliterature

Someotherapplications

●Anthropologicallinguistics

●Neurolinguistics

●Computationallinguistics（e.g.machinetranslation）

Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics

Descriptivevsprescriptive

●Descriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse（modernlinguistic）

●Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage（traditionalgrammar）

Synchronicvsdiachronic

●Synchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime（modernlinguistics）

●Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime（historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime）

Speechvswriting

●Speech----primarymediumoflanguage

●Writing----laterdeveloped

Languevsparole（F.deSaussure）

●Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.

●Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.

●Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.

Competenceandperformance（Chomsky）

●Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage

●Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication

●Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.

Traditionalgrammarvsmodernlinguistics

●Traditionalgrammar----prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframework

●Modernlinguistics-----descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework

Chapter2Phonology

●Languageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsound