Conversational-Implicature-Pragmatics-3PPT文档格式.ppt

Conversational-Implicature-Pragmatics-3PPT文档格式.ppt

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ConversationalImplicature,Lecture3,Wordsarelikeleaves;@#@andwheretheymostabound,Muchfruitofsensebeneathisrarelyfound.（AlexanderPope,AnEssayonCriticism）,Theoriesofmeaning,Thereferentialtheoryclaimsthateverysentenceisacombinationofwordsandeachwordstandsforanobject.Themeaningofthewordistheobjectthewordrefersto.ThekingofFranceisbald.ThemorningstaristheEveningstar.,Thedistinctionbetweenasentenceandtheuseofasentence“wecannottalkofthesentencebeingtrueorfalse,butonlyofitsbeingusedtomakeatrueorfalseassertion,or（ifthisispreferred）toexpressatrueorfalseproposition.”（Strawson,1950）Wariswar.,Meaninginuse,contextandintentionStevenson（1963）proposestwokindsofmeaning:

@#@Descriptive/conventionalmeaningnotcarrytheindividualwillandattitudePsychological/pragmaticmeaningdependontheintentionandfeelingofthespeakerandhearer.,Gricestheoryofmeaning,Naturalmeaning（meaning-n）Withnoagentorintention,themeaningisperceivednaturally.XmeansthatPentailsP.Thoseblackcloudsmeanrain.Thosespotsmeanmeasles.Non-naturalmeaning（meaning-nn）Intentionisinvolved.XmeansP,butitdoesntnecessarilyentailP.Theringsonthebellmeanthebusisfull.Hiscoughmeansthatheisseriouslyill.,Non-naturalmeaning（meaning-nn）,AmeantsomethingbyX=AintendedtheutteranceofXtoproducesomeeffectinanaudiencebymeansoftherecognitionofthisintention.（Grice,inMeaning,1957）Smeant-nnbyutteringUifandonlyif:

@#@（i）SintendedUtocausesomeeffectzinrecipientH（ii）Sintended（i）tobeachievedsimplybyHrecognizingthatintention（i）Whatiscommunication?

@#@IncidentaltransferofinformationCommunicationproperinvolvesintentionandagency.Onlythoseinferencesthatareopenlyintendedtobeconveyedcanproperlybesaidtohavebeencommunicated.,Kindsofcommunicationalcontent,Saidvs.implicated“Withsomeknowledgeofacertainlanguage,thespeakerproducesastandardgrammaticalsentenceandthissentence,withoutanyconsiderationofcircumstantialfactors,canbeunderstoodproperlyaccordingtoitsconventionalmeaning.”（truth-conditional）Conventionalvs.non-conventionalSimplyattachedbyconventiontoparticularlexicalitemsorexpressions.（but,therefore,even,yet）Sheispoorandhonest.Sheispoorbuthonest.（propositionalcontent,implication）（context-free）,Non-conversationalvs.conversationalApoorlydescribedclasswhichGricethoughtasderivablefromthepossible“aesthetic,social,ormoral”maximswhichheindicatedexistbutdidnotargueforinhisworkCP-involvedimplicature（CP）A:

@#@Whereismyfish?

@#@B:

@#@Oh,thecatlookshappy.Generalvs.particular（maximobservation）,Conversationalimplicature,PutforwardbyGriceintheWilliamJamesLecturesatHarvardUniversityin1967Aninferencefromthesemanticcontentdependingoncontext,speakersintention,hearersattitudeandthemutualassumption.TheCP-directedimplicaturesAnotherclassictopicinPragmaticsbecauseitstudiestheunstablecontext-specificpragmaticoverlayofthatstablesemanticcore.,TheimportanceofCI,CIstandsasaparadigmaticexampleofthenatureandpowerofpragmaticexplanationoflinguisticphenomena.Itprovidessomeexplicitaccountofhowitispossibletomeanmorethanwhatisactuallysaid.A:

@#@Canyoutellmethetime?

@#@B:

@#@Well,themilkmanhasjustcome.,Itseemslikelytosimplifythestructureandthecontentofsemanticdescriptions.Thelonerangerjumpedonhishorseandrodeintothesunset.Thelonerangerrodeintothesunsetandjumpedonhishorse.Theflagiswhite.Theflagiswhite,redandblue.（ambiguous?

@#@）Thetheoryhasaverygeneralexplanatorypower:

@#@afewbasicprincipleprovideexplanationsforalargearrayofapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Metaphors,tautologies,somelogicaldilemma,nallnotall,CooperativePrinciple,CP-Makeyourcontributionsuchasitisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.N.B.Phrasedasaprescriptivecommand,theprincipleisintendedasadescriptionofhowpeoplenormallybehaveinconversation（differentfromRhetoric）.,4maxims,ThemaximofquantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;@#@Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;@#@Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThemaximofrelationMakeyourcontributionrelevant.ThemaximofmannerBeperspicuous,andspecifically:

@#@avoidobscurityavoidambiguitybebriefbeorderly.TheHorniansystem,Observationvs.violation,Observation:

@#@Observationofboththegeneralprincipleanditsmaxims（Whatdayistoday?

@#@Thursday.）Observationofthegeneralprincipleonly（adherencetotheprincipleatadeeperlevel）,Violations:

@#@ViolationofCPasawhole（noCI）withoutthehearersawareness（misleading,e.g.lie）attheawarenessofthehearer（“nocomments.”notmisleading）Viol