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ProgressinComputers

微机发展简史

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2012年2月26日

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ProgressinComputers

PrestigeLecturedeliveredtoIEE,Cambridge,on5February2004

MauriceWilkes

ComputerLaboratory

UniversityofCambridge

Thefirststoredprogramcomputersbegantoworkaround1950.TheonewebuiltinCambridge,theEDSACwasfirstusedinthesummerof1949.

Theseearlyexperimentalcomputerswerebuiltbypeoplelikemyselfwithvaryingbackgrounds.Weallhadextensiveexperienceinelectronicengineeringandwereconfidentthatthatexperiencewouldstandusingoodstead.Thisprovedtrue,althoughwehadsomenewthingstolearn.Themostimportantofthesewasthattransientsmustbetreatedcorrectly;

whatwouldcauseaharmlessflashonthescreenofatelevisionsetcouldleadtoaseriouserrorinacomputer.

Asfarascomputingcircuitswereconcerned,wefoundourselveswithanembarassderichess.Forexample,wecouldusevacuumtubediodesforgatesaswedidintheEDSACorpentodeswithcontrolsignalsonbothgrids,asystemwidelyusedelsewhere.Thissortofchoicepersistedandthetermfamiliesoflogiccameintouse.ThosewhohaveworkedinthecomputerfieldwillrememberTTL,ECLandCMOS.Ofthese,CMOShasnowbecomedominant.

Inthoseearlyyears,theIEEwasstilldominatedbypowerengineeringandwehadtofightanumberofmajorbattlesinordertogetradioengineeringalongwiththerapidlydevelopingsubjectofelectronics.dubbedintheIEElightcurrentelectricalengineering.properlyrecognisedasanactivityinitsownright.Irememberthatwehadsomedifficultyinorganisingaconferencebecausethepowerengineers’waysofdoingthingswerenotourways.AminorsourceofirritationwasthatallIEEpublishedpaperswereexpectedtostartwithalengthystatementofearlierpractice,somethingdifficulttodowhentherewasnoearlierpractice

Consolidationinthe1960s

Bythelate50sorearly1960s,theheroicpioneeringstagewasoverandthecomputerfieldwasstartingupinrealearnest.Thenumberofcomputersintheworldhadincreasedandtheyweremuchmorereliablethantheveryearlyones.Tothoseyearswecanascribethefirststepsinhighlevellanguagesandthefirstoperatingsystems.Experimentaltime-sharingwasbeginning,andultimatelycomputergraphicswastocomealong.

Aboveall,transistorsbegantoreplacevacuumtubes.Thischangepresentedaformidablechallengetotheengineersoftheday.Theyhadtoforgetwhattheyknewaboutcircuitsandstartagain.Itcanonlybesaidthattheymeasuredupsuperblywelltothechallengeandthatthechangecouldnothavegonemoresmoothly.

Soonitwasfoundpossibletoputmorethanonetransistoronthesamebitofsilicon,andthiswasthebeginningofintegratedcircuits.Astimewenton,asufficientlevelofintegrationwasreachedforonechiptoaccommodateenoughtransistorsforasmallnumberofgatesorflipflops.Thisledtoarangeofchipsknownasthe7400series.Thegatesandflipflopswereindependentofoneanotherandeachhaditsownpins.Theycouldbeconnectedbyoff-chipwiringtomakeacomputeroranythingelse.

Thesechipsmadeanewkindofcomputerpossible.Itwascalledaminicomputer.Itwassomethinglessthatamainframe,butstillverypowerful,andmuchmoreaffordable.Insteadofhavingoneexpensivemainframeforthewholeorganisation,abusinessorauniversitywasabletohaveaminicomputerforeachmajordepartment.

Beforelongminicomputersbegantospreadandbecomemorepowerful.Theworldwashungryforcomputingpowerandithadbeenveryfrustratingforindustrynottobeabletosupplyitonthescalerequiredandatareasonablecost.Minicomputerstransformedthesituation.

Thefallinthecostofcomputingdidnotstartwiththeminicomputer;

ithadalwaysbeenthatway.ThiswaswhatImeantwhenIreferredinmyabstracttoinflationinthecomputerindustry‘goingtheotherway’.Astimegoesonpeoplegetmorefortheirmoney,notless.

ResearchinComputerHardware.

ThetimethatIamdescribingwasawonderfuloneforresearchincomputerhardware.Theuserofthe7400seriescouldworkatthegateandflip-floplevelandyettheoveralllevelofintegrationwassufficienttogiveadegreeofreliabilityfarabovethatofdiscreettransistors.Theresearcher,inauniversityorelsewhere,couldbuildanydigitaldevicethatafertileimaginationcouldconjureup.IntheComputerLaboratorywebuilttheCambridgeCAP,afull-scaleminicomputerwithfancycapabilitylogic.

The7400serieswasstillgoingstronginthemid1970sandwasusedfortheCambridgeRing,apioneeringwide-ban