会计和 RD 的课税方式更新外文翻译.docx

会计和 RD 的课税方式更新外文翻译.docx

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会计和RD的课税方式更新外文翻译

外文翻译

原文

AccountingandTaxTreatmentofR&D:

AnUpdate

By JosephR.Oliver

Researchanddevelopment（R&D）iscrucialtotheU.S.economy.Fewpeople,however,appreciatehowpervasivelyR&DaffectsAmericanindustry.AstudyofallpubliclyheldU.S.corporations,otherthanutilities,transportation,andfinancialenterprises,revealsthatmorethan50%reportedatleastsomeR&Dinthelastfiveyears.AccordingtotheFederalReserveBankofPhiladelphia,R&Dgrewfrom1.8%ofU.S.nonfinancialcorporategrossdomesticproductinthe1970sto2.9%inthe1990s.

U.S.GAAPforR&D

SFAS2, AccountingforResearchandDevelopmentCosts,requiresthatR&Dgenerallybeexpensedasincurredandthateachyear’stotalR&Dbedisclosedinthefinancialstatements.SFAS2viewstheresearchcomponentofR&Dasa“plannedsearchorcriticalinvestigationaimedatdiscoveryofnewknowledge”thatcouldresultinaneworimprovedproduct,service,process,ortechnique.ThedevelopmentcomponentofR&Distranslating“researchfindingsorotherknowledgeintoaplanordesign”foraneworimprovedproduct,service,process,ortechnique.Developmentincludesconceptualformulation,design,andtestingofproductalternatives;constructionofprototypesandoperationofpilotplants;butnotroutinealterationstoexistingproducts,processes,oroperations.Seethe ExhibitforexamplesofR&DactivitiesunderSFAS2.

Materials,equipment,andfacilitiesusedinR&Dactivitiesareexpensedasconsumed,includingdepreciationoverusefullivesiftheyhavealternativefutureuses.Iftheyhavenoalternativefutureuses,theseitemsareexpensedasacquiredorconstructed,neverdepreciated.Similarly,purchasedintangiblesareamortizedintoR&Dcostsovertheirusefullivesiftheyhavealternativefutureusesbutareexpensedasincurrediftheydonot.AdditionalR&Dcostsmayincludesalaries,wages,andotherpersonnelcosts;contractservices;andareasonableallocationofindirectcorporatecostsunlesstheyarenotclearlyrelatedtoR&Dactivities.

The“alternativefutureuses”conceptsometimesresultsindifferenttreatmentoptionswithinthesamefamilyofcompanies.Forexample,ParentCorp.mightcapitalizeanddepreciateequipmentacquiredforresearchpurposesiftheenterprisehasanalternativefutureusefortheasset.Parent’ssmallersubsidiary,XYZ,wouldexpensethesamemachineryifXYZhasnoalternativefutureuseforit.ThismightoccurevenifXYZisstillestablishingitsbusiness,accordingtoSFAS7, AccountingandReportingbyDevelopmentStageEnterprises.

AlthoughnumerousstudiesindicatethatpartorallofR&Dexpendituresmayprovidesomefuturebenefit,FASBhaspermittedR&Dtobecapitalizedonlyforcertainkindsofsoftware.SFAS86,AccountingfortheCostsofComputerSoftwaretobeSold,Leased,orOtherwiseMarketed,dividesthelifeofasoftwareproductintothreesegments:

∙CostsincurredbeforetechnologicalfeasibilityfortheproductisestablishedareexpensedasincurredunderSFAS2.Technologicalfeasibilityisdetermineduponcompletionofadetailedprogramdesignorcompletionofaworkingmodel.

∙Thentheproduct’ssecondlifesegment,softwareproduction,begins,andthecompanycapitalizesallrelevantcosts.

∙Onceasoftwareproductisavailableforgeneralreleasetocustomers,amortizationbeginsforcapitalizedcosts,andsubsequentoutlaysareagainexpensedasincurred.Amortizationofcapitalizedcostsiscomputedbyusingaratioofcurrentandfuturegrossrevenuesfortheproduct,orbyusingastraight-linecharge-offovertheremainingeconomiclife,whicheverisgreater.Remainingcapitalizedcostsarereportedatthelowerofunamortizedbalancesornetrealizablevalueoftheproduct,withanywrite-offsreflectedyearbyyear.

SFAS2couldleadtoexaggeratedresultsinreportingtheacquisitionofacompanywithin-processR&D.Ifaportionofapurchasedcompany’svalueis 

representedbyR&Dassetsthathavenoalternativefutureuse,SFAS141andFASBInterpretation4generallyrequirethatthispartoftheacquisitionpricebecurrentlychargedoff.Insomeinstances,thismightamounttomostofthepricepaid.BecausetheSECwantstominimizeearningsmanagementopportunities,propervaluationofin-processR&Dforacquiredenterprisesiscritical.

SFAS68, ResearchandDevelopmentArrangements,isacatchallthatattemptstoincludeavarietyofcomplexaffiliationsbetweencompaniesforR&Dactivities.OneenterprisemayperformR&Dforanotheraspartofacontract,asameansofexpandingandtransferringtechnology,orasawaytosharefinancialrisk.

Dependinguponthearrangement,R&Dcanresultincharge-offs,andthemeansoffinancingcouldproduceliabilities.AdditionaldisclosuresmayincludethetermsofsignificantagreementsandcertaininformationrequiredbySFAS57, RelatedPartyDisclosures,baseduponhowtheresearchandfundingenterprisesalignthemselvesfortheproject.

Inadditiontoensuringthattreatmentanddisclosuresatisfiesrelevantaccountingstandards,R&DmaybeencounteredinconnectionwithSAS59, TheAuditor’sConsiderationofanEntity’sAbilitytoContinueasaGoingConcern.Anauditorwhohassubstantialdoubtaboutanentity’sabilitytocontinueasagoingconcernshouldconsidermanagement’splans,includingpostponementofR&Dprojects.Suchanactionmighthavemixedresults;cashflowandearningscouldbenefitintheshortrun,butstudiessuggestthatinvestorsaredrawntoR&Dandthatsuchcutsmightdrivedownthestockpriceofapubliclyheldcorporation.

InternationalAccountingStandard38, IntangibleAssets,providesaviewcontrarytoU.S.treatmentofR&D.IAS38dividesR&Dintoaresearchphaseandadevelopmentphase.Itrequiresthatresearchcostsbeexpensed,butallowsdevelopmentcoststobecapitalizedandamortizediftheyproduceprobablefutureeconomicbenefitsundercertaincriteria.

DeductingR&DforFederalTaxPurposes

IRCsection174ismoreflexiblethanGAAP,allowingataxpayertocurrentlydeductR&D（called“researchandexperimentalcosts”intaxlaw）ortocapitalizeandamortizesuchoutlaysover60monthsormore.Amortizationbeginswiththemonthinwhichbenefitsarefirstrealized—thatis,puttoincome-producinguse—andseparateprojectsmaybeamortizedoverdifferentperiods.Onceacorporationchooseseithermethod,itmayusetheothermethodonlywithIRSpermission.AtaxpayerthatneglectstomakethechoiceisrequiredtocapitalizeR&Dwithoutamortization.

OutlaysareR&Dforfederaltaxpurposesiftheyareintendedtodiscoverinformationthatwouldeliminateuncertaintyregardingthedevelopmentorimprovementofaproduct.Forthispurpose,aproductincludesapilotmodel,process,formula,invention,technique,patent,orsimilarpropertythatthetaxpayerwilluseinatradeorbusinessorwillholdforsale,lease,orlicense,accordingtoTreasuryRegulationssection1.174-2（a）.Toeliminateuncertainty,R&Dmustbeintendedtoestablishthecapabilityormethodfordeveloping,improving,ordesigningtheproperty.

WhileSFAS2excludeslegalfeesinmakingandperfectingpatentapplications,TreasuryRegulationssection1.174-2includestheminR&D.Nevertheless,taxlawexcludesquality-controltesting（exceptfortestingtodetermineifadesignisappropriate）,efficiencyandconsumersurveys,managementstudies,advertising,promotions,andthecostofpurchasingapatent,model,production,orprocess.Alsoexcludedisresearchregardingliterary,historical,andsimilarprojects;thelatter,includingcostsofproducingfilms,soundrecordings,videotapes,books,andsimilarproperties,maybesubjecttotheuniformcapitalizationrulesofIRCsection263A.ThecostoflanddoesnotqualifyasanR&Dexpense.Neitherdoexpendituresfordeterminingtheexistence,location,extent,orqualityofoilandgasdeposits,minerals,orores.

U.S.taxlawalsodiffersfromGAAPinthetreatmentofdepreciablepropertyacquiredforpurposesofR&D.WhileSFAS2insiststhatthecostofsuchpropertybecurrentlyexpensedifithasnoalternativefutureuse,TreasuryRegulationssection1.174-2（b）requiresthatpropertybedepreciatedforR&Dpurposes.IfR&Dresultsintheconstructionofdepreciableproperty,however,thetaxpayergenerallymustcapitalizeanddepreciateonlythecostsofmaterials,labor,andotherelementsusedinconstructingandinstallingtheproperty.RemainingcostsaredeductibleoramortizableasR&DunderIRCsection174.

Generally,noneofthecostsofamachineorplantpurchasedfromanothertaxpayerqualifyasR&D,exceptfordepreciationallocabletoR&D.Nevertheless,ifthesellerprovideslimitedornoguaranteesregardingaspecial-orderasset’sperformance,suchasproductionqualityorquantityortheasset’sconsumptionoffuelandrawmaterials,partofthecostmaybedeductibleoramortizableasR&D.

ChoosingwhethertocurrentlydeductortoamortizeR&Dtypicallydependsonanentity’sprojectionsoftaxableincome,onwhethernetoperatinglosscarryoversmightexpireunused,andonothertaxcircumstances.Insomecases,theat-riskrulesofIRCsection465orpassivelosslimitsofIRCsection469maybeapplicable.

FederalTaxCreditforResearch

IRCsection41providesataxcreditof20%ofcertainincreasesinqualifiedresearchexpenses（seeIRSForm6765）.TheIRCsection174R&DdeductionisreducedbytheR&DcredittakenunderIRCsection280C（c）.Alternatively,thetaxpayermayelecttotakethefullR&Ddeductionbutreducethecreditby35%（themaximumcorporatetaxrate）.

Toqualifyforthecredit,eligibleresearchmustfirstmeetfourrequirementsprovidedbyIRCsection41（d）:

∙Researchoutlaysmustqualify