现代语言学教程 整理笔记.docx
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现代语言学教程整理笔记
现代语言学教程整理笔记
第一章绪论
1/Whatislinguistics?
什么是语言学？
Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.
2/Thescopeoflinguistics
语言学的研究范畴
Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（普通语言学）
Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）
Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）
Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）
Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.（句法学）
Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）
Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）
Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）
Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）
Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.
Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）
3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics
语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写
Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.
Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.
Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时
Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.
Speechandwriting口头语与书面语
Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:
1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.
Langueandparole语言和言语
TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.
Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.
Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用
ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.
Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.
4/Whatislanguage?
语言的定义
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
Sapiruses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.
5/Designfeatures
语言的甄别性特征
Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.
Arbitrariness语言的随意性
Arbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Itisnotentirelyarbitrary.
Example:
differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.
Productivity语言的创造性
Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.
Duality语言的二重性
Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.
Displacement语言的移位性
Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.
Culturaltransmission语言的文化传递性
Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.
Chapter2Phonology音系学
1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage
语言的声音媒介
Speechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.
Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.
Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage（语言的声音媒介）.Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.
2．Whatisphonetics?
什么是语音学？
Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage；Itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.
语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
Therearethreebranchesofphonetics.Theyare:
Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）,itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview.Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.
Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbyhehearer.
Acousticphonetics（声学语音学），itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.
3.Organsofspeech
发音器官
Thepharyngealcavity咽腔thethroat
Theoralcavity口腔themouth
Thenasalcavity鼻腔thenose
Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinmanyways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynx（喉）beforeitreachesanyofthecavities.
Lyingacrosstheglottis（声门）arethevocalcords（声带）.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”.Thespeedofthevibrationdeterminesthepitchofthesound.
Thetongueisthemostflexibleintheoralcavity.
4.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptions
语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标
IPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标
Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols（字母符号）only,calledbroadtranscription（宽式音标）.Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics（变音符号）,callednarrowtranscription（窄式音标）.
实例：
对pit/spit中p音的比较：
pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：
[phit]
spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：
[spit]
对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：
Leaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：
[li:
f]
Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]
Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]
Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]
5.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds
英语语音的分类
a）ClassificationofEnglishconsonants
英语辅音的分类
按发音方式分
Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:
[p][b][t][d][k][g]
Fricative擦音：
[f][v][s][z][][][s][][h]
Affricate塞擦音：
[t][d]
Liquid流音：
[l][r]
Nasal鼻音：
[m][n][]
Glide滑音：
[w][j]
按发音部位分
Bilabial双唇音：
[p][b][m][w]
Labiodental唇齿音：
[f][v]
Dental齿音：
[][]
Alveolar齿龈音：
[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]
Palatal硬腭音：
[][t][d][i]
Velar软腭音：
[k][g][]
Glottal声门音：
[h]
B）ClassificationofEnglishvowels
英语元音的分类
按舌头在口中的位置分：
Frontvowel前元音：
[i:
][i][e][][a]
Centralvowel中元音：
[:
][][]
Backvowel后元音：
[u:
][u][:
][][a:
]
按口形的大小分：
Closevowel闭元音：
[i:
][i][u:
][u]
Semi-closevowel半闭元音：
[e][:
]
Openvowel开元音：
[][a]
Semi-openvowel半开元音：
[][:
][][][a:
]
按唇形是否为圆分
Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音：
[i:
][i][e][][a][:
][][][a:
]
roundedvowel圆唇元音：
[u:
][u][:
][]
按语音的长短分
Longvowel长元音[i:
][:
][a:
][u:
][:
]
Shortvowel短元音[i][e][][a][][][u][]
在元音中还有一些（diphthong）双元音，包括：
[ei][ai][u][au][i][i][e][u]
6.Phonology音系学
Phonologyandphonetics
音系学和语音学
Bothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.
Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;
Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.
语音学研究人类所有的语言。
音系学研究某种特定语言的语音系统。
Ex
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