Second language acquisition.docx

Second language acquisition.docx

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Secondlanguageacquisition

Second-languageacquisition

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  （Redirectedfrom Secondlanguageacquisition）

Second-languageacquisition or second-languagelearning istheprocessbywhichpeoplelearna secondlanguage.Second-languageacquisition（oftenabbreviatedto SLA）alsoreferstothescientificdisciplinedevotedtostudyingthatprocess. Secondlanguage referstoanylanguagelearnedinadditiontoaperson's firstlanguage;althoughtheconceptisnamed second-languageacquisition,itcanalsoincorporatethelearningofthird,fourth,orsubsequentlanguages.[1] Second-languageacquisitionreferstowhatlearnersdo;itdoesnotrefertopracticesin languageteaching.

Theacademicdisciplineofsecond-languageacquisitionisasubdisciplineof appliedlinguistics.Itisbroad-basedandrelativelynew.Aswellasthevariousbranchesof linguistics,second-languageacquisitionisalsocloselyrelatedtopsychology,cognitivepsychology,andeducation.Toseparatetheacademicdisciplinefromthelearningprocessitself,theterms second-languageacquisitionresearch, second-languagestudies,and second-languageacquisitionstudies arealsoused.SLAresearchbeganasaninterdisciplinaryfield,andbecauseofthisitisdifficulttoidentifyaprecisestartingdate.However,itdoesappeartohavedevelopedagreatdealsincethemid-1960s.[2] Theterm acquisitionwasoriginallyusedtoemphasizethesubconsciousnatureofthelearningprocess,[3] butinrecentyears learning and acquisitionhavebecomelargelysynonymous.

Second-languageacquisitioncanincorporate heritagelanguagelearning,[4] butitdoesnotusuallyincorporate bilingualism.MostSLAresearchersseebilingualismasbeingtheendresultoflearningalanguage,nottheprocessitself,andseethetermasreferringtonative-likefluency.Writersinfieldssuchaseducationandpsychology,however,oftenusebilingualismlooselytorefertoallformsof multilingualism.[5] Second-languageacquisitionisalsonottobecontrastedwiththeacquisitionofa foreignlanguage;rather,thelearningofsecondlanguagesandthelearningofforeignlanguagesinvolvethesamefundamentalprocessesindifferentsituations.[6].

Therehasbeenmuchdebateaboutexactlyhowlanguageislearned,andmanyissuesarestillunresolved.Therearemanytheoriesofsecond-languageacquisition,butnoneareacceptedasacompleteexplanationbyallSLAresearchers.Duetotheinterdisciplinarynatureofthefieldofsecond-languageacquisition,thisisnotexpectedtohappenintheforeseeablefuture.

Contents

  [hide] 

∙1 History

∙2 Comparisonswithfirst-languageacquisition

∙3 Learnerlanguage

o3.1 Itemandsystemlearning

o3.2 Interlanguage

o3.3 Sequencesofacquisition

o3.4 Variability

o3.5 Languagetransfer

∙4 Factorscontributingtosuccessfulacquisition

o4.1 Externalfactors

▪4.1.1 Inputandinteraction

▪4.1.2 Socialaspects

o4.2 Internalfactors

▪4.2.1 Cognitiveapproaches

▪4.2.2 Socioculturalapproaches

▪4.2.3 Linguisticapproaches

∙5 Individualvariation

o5.1 Affectivefactors

∙6 Intheclassroom

∙7 Factorscontributingtoacquisitiondifficulty

o7.1 Phonology

o7.2 Grammar

o7.3 FornativeEnglishspeakers

∙8 Seealso

∙9 Notes

∙10 References

∙11 Furtherreading

∙12 Externallinks

[edit]History

AsSLAbeganasaninterdisciplinaryfield,itishardtopindownaprecisestartingdate.[2] However,therearetwopublicationsinparticularthatareseenasinstrumentaltothedevelopmentofthemodernstudyofSLA:

PittCorder's1967essay TheSignificanceofLearners'Errors,andLarrySelinker's1972article Interlanguage.Corder'sessayrejectedabehavioristaccountofSLAandsuggestedthatlearnersmadeuseofintrinsicinternallinguisticprocesses;Selinker'sarticlearguedthatsecond-languagelearnerspossesstheirownindividuallinguisticsystemsthatareindependentfromboththefirstandsecondlanguages.[7]

Inthe1970sthegeneraltrendinSLAwasforresearchexploringtheideasofCorderandSelinker,andrefuting behaviorist theoriesoflanguageacquisition.Examplesincluderesearchinto erroranalysis,studiesin transitionalstages ofsecond-languageability,andthe"morphemestudies"investigatingtheorderinwhichlearnersacquiredlinguisticfeatures.The70sweredominatedby naturalisticstudiesofpeoplelearning Englishasasecondlanguage.[7]

Bythe1980s,thetheoriesof StephenKrashen hadbecometheprominentparadigminSLA.Inhistheories,oftencollectivelyknownasthe InputHypothesis,Krashensuggestedthatlanguageacquisitionisdrivensolelyby comprehensibleinput,languageinputthatlearnerscanunderstand.Krashen'smodelwasinfluentialinthefieldofSLAandalsohadalargeinfluenceonlanguageteaching,butitleftsomeimportantprocessesinSLAunexplained.Researchinthe1980swascharacterizedbytheattempttofillinthesegaps.SomeapproachesincludedLydiaWhite'sdescriptionsoflearnercompetence,andManfredPienemann'suseofspeechprocessingmodelsand lexicalfunctionalgrammar toexplainlearneroutput.Thisperiodalsosawthebeginningofapproachesbasedinotherdisciplines,suchasthepsychologicalapproachof connectionism.[7]

The1990ssawahostofnewtheoriesintroducedtothefield,suchasMichaelLong's interactionhypothesis, MerrillSwain's outputhypothesis,and RichardSchmidt's noticinghypothesis.However,thetwomainareasofresearchinterestwerelinguistictheoriesofSLAbasedupon NoamChomsky's universalgrammar,andpsychologicalapproachessuchas skillacquisitiontheory and connectionism.Thelattercategoryalsosawthenewtheoriesof processability and inputprocessing inthistimeperiod.The1990salsosawtheintroductionof socioculturaltheory,anapproachtoexplainsecond-languageacquisitionintermsofthesocialenvironmentofthelearner.[7]

Inthe2000sresearchwasfocusedonmuchthesameareasasinthe1990s,withresearchsplitintotwomaincampsoflinguisticandpsychologicalapproaches.VanPattenandBenatidonotseethisstateofaffairsaschanginginthenearfuture,pointingtothesupportbothareasofresearchhaveinthewiderfieldsof linguistics andpsychology,respectively.[7]

[edit]Comparisonswithfirst-languageacquisition

Peoplewholearnasecondlanguagedifferfromchildren learningtheirfirstlanguage inanumberofways.Perhapsthemoststrikingoftheseisthatveryfewadultsecond-languagelearnersreachthesamecompetenceasnativespeakersofthatlanguage.Childrenlearningasecondlanguagearemorelikelytoachievenative-likefluencythanadults,butingeneralitisveryrareforsomeonespeakingasecondlanguagetopasscompletelyforanativespeaker.Whenalearner'sspeechplateausinthiswayitisknownasfossilization.

Inaddition,someerrorsthatsecond-languagelearnersmakeintheirspeechoriginateintheirfirstlanguage.Forexample, Spanishspeakerslearning English maysay"Israining"ratherthan"Itisraining",leavingoutthe subject ofthesentence. French speakerslearningEnglish,however,donotusuallymakethesamemistake.ThisisbecausesentencesubjectscanbeleftoutinSpanish,butnotinFrench.[8] Thisinfluenceofthefirstlanguageonthesecondisknownas languagetransfer.

Also,whenpeoplelearnasecondlanguage,thewaytheyspeaktheirfirstlanguagechangesinsubtleways.Thesechangescanbewithanyaspectoflanguage,frompronunciationandsyntaxtogesturesthelearnermakesandthethingstheytendtonotice.[9] Forexample,FrenchspeakerswhospokeEnglishasasecondlanguagepronouncedthe/t/soundinFrenchdifferentlyfrommonolingualFrenchspeakers.[10]Thiseffectofthesecondlanguageonthefirstled VivianCook toproposetheideaof multi-competence,whichseesthedifferentlanguagesapersonspeaksnotasseparatesystems,butasrelatedsystemsintheirmind.[11]

[edit]Learnerlanguage

Learnerlanguage isthewrittenorspokenlanguageproducedbyalearner.Itisalsothemaintypeofdatausedinsecond-languageacquisitionresearch.[12] Muchresearchinsecond-languageacquisitionisconcernedwiththeinternalrepresentationsofalanguageinthemindofthelearner,andinhowthoserepresentationschangeovertime.Itisnotyetpossibletoinspecttheserepresentationsdirectlywithbrainscansorsimilartechniques,soSLAresearchersareforcedtomakeinferencesabouttheserulesfromlearners'speechorwriting.[13]

[edit]Itemandsystemlearning

Therearetwotypesoflearningthatsecond-languagelearnersengagein.Thefirstis itemlearning,orthelearningofformulaicchunksoflanguage.Thesechunkscanbeindividualwords,setphrases,orformulaslike CanIhavea___?

 Thesecondkindoflearningis systemlearning,orthelearningofsystematicrules.[14]

[edit]Interlanguage

Mainarticle:

 Interlanguage

Originally,attemptstodescribelearnerlanguagewerebasedoncomparingdifferentlanguages andon analyzinglearners'errors.However,theseapproachesweren'tabletopredictalltheerrorsthatlearnersmadewhenintheprocessoflearningasecondlanguage.Forexample,Serbo-CroatspeakerslearningEnglishmaysay"WhatdoesPatdoingnow?

",althoughthisisnotavalidsentenceineitherlanguage.[15]

Toexplainthesekindofsystematicerrors,theideaoftheinterlanguage wasdeveloped.[16] Aninterlanguageisanemerginglanguagesysteminthemindofasecond-languagelearner.Alearner'sinterlanguageisnotadeficientversionofthelanguagebeinglearnedfilledwithrandomerrors,norisitalanguagepurelybasedonerrorsintroducedfromthelearner'sfirstlanguage.Rather,itisalanguageinitsownright,withitsownsystematicrules.[17] Itispossibletoviewmo