工程管理专业英文文献.docx
《工程管理专业英文文献.docx》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《工程管理专业英文文献.docx(43页珍藏版)》请在冰豆网上搜索。
工程管理专业英文文献
LanguageasaResourceinProjectManagement:
ACaseStudyandaConceptualFramework
NunoA.Gil
Abstract—Thisstudyshedslightonhowprojectmanagerscanuselanguageasaresourceforcommunicatingwithlocalcommu・nitiesandstakeholdersalik罠andprotectthekgitimacvoftheirdecisionsandactions・Theverbalaccountsproducedbyaseniorprojectmanagementteamareexaminedin-depth.TheaccountsaddresstheclaimsraisedbyresidentsaffectedbytheexpansionoftheHeathrowairport.Thecontextforthetalk-in-interactionisoneofconflictinginterests:
thepromoterundertakesactionstomitigatetheimpactsoftheconstructionworks・butsomeidentsfeelFrustratedthatthebusinesscangrowattheexpensesoftheirwelfare.Thefindingsrevealthatmanagerstendtoacknowledgeallclaimsevenwhenperceivingtheylacklegitimacy.Theanalystsofthewordsandphrasingintheconversationalturnsthatformtheaccountsreveakthrettones_aring・assertive,andapologetic—thatmanagersuseintentionallytoframelinRuisticallytheacknowledgements・Thestudydiscusseshowthetonesfitwiththeextenttowhich,first,managersconsiderthattheclaimsarefactuallycorrect,fair,andpreciseasopposedtounfair,exaggerated,oropportunistic;andsecond,managersfindtechnicalorinstitutionalreferencesavailableforconstructingtheaccounts・1(akodiscussestheeffectsofcongruence—orthelackofit—betweenwhatmanagersmeantosayaboutwhattheprojectteamwilldo・whatmanagersactuallysay,howlistenersinterpretwhatwassaid,andwhattheprojectteamactuallygetsdone・
IndexTerms—Comniunicatio1anguage,legitimacy,localcom・munities,projectstakeholder・
I.Introduction
P
ROJECTSaresocioteclinicalenterprises,andtechnicalknow-howaloneisinsufficienttobringaprojecttosuccessfulcompletion.Thispremisemakesconiinumcationskillscentraltoprojectmanagement,aswellasabehav-ictalcompetencethatprofessionalassociationsrequireforcertifiedprojectmanagers[36],[52],Communicationhasalsolongdeservedattentionintheprojectmanagementliterature.Gaddis*[27]seminalarticleexhortsprojectmanagerstoinvestinlearningtocommunicateadeqviately.Italsonotesthatfranknessandintegrityarekeyfeamresofcommunicationwhendiscussingthefuture.Subsequentliteratureontheso-calledsoftsideofprojectmanagement—thatembodiesLechler's[39]dictum"whenitcomestoprojectmanagement,it'sthepeoplethatmatter"—hassincethensoughttofleshoutseminalideas(e.g„[12],[13],and[51J).
ManuscriptreceivedDecember2,2008;revisedMarch31.2009andMay9.2009;acceptedJune24,2009.DateofpublicationOctober6,2009;dateofcunent^-ersionJuly21,2010.Rev诧xvofthismanuscriptwasarrangedbyDepanxnentEditorJ.K.Pinto.
TheauthorisxvxththeManchesterBusinessSchool.TheUniveisityofManchester,ManchesterMl56PB,U.K.(e-mail:
nuno.gil@mbs.ac.uk).
DigitalObjectIdentifier10.1109TEM.2009.202S327
Onesubsetofthisliteraturehasfocusedonthecominunica・tionskillsnecessarytoeffectivelymanagestakeholdersexternaltoprojects.Thisliteraturehasfocusedonmanaginglocalcom-munities,media,andotlierconstituencies(e.g„environmental・istsandp代servauoms(s)affectedbylarge-scalelnfrastmctiireprojects[58],[66].Thetheoryisunderdeveloped,butthesuesarewellunderstood.Attheonset,projectmanagersneedtodevelopapublicrelationsplanabouthowtodealviththepublicandmedia,andtodividethecommunicationworkloadamongtheteainmembers[66].Tobeeffective,projectmanagersneedtobuildcoalitionsandcommunicationchannelswiththeaffectedgroups,managetheirexpectations,listentotheircon・cerns.keepthemup-to-dateonprojectprogress,attendpublicmeetings,andparticipatemcommunityaffairs[3],[12].Theyalsoneedtoforeseeandforestallemergentissues,preparedetailedresponses,andrespondquicklytomisleadingmfbrniationthatcirculatesabouttheproject[51],[66].
Collectively,theseactionshelpprojectmanagerstomaketheaffectedgroupsgamconfidenceandtrustintheprojectteam[58],Theseactionsmayalsobringontheaffectedgroupstoseetheprojectasanopportunitytoimprovetheirwelfareratherthanathreattovestedinterests[58],Indoingso.man・agersprotectinstitutionallegitimacy,ie.thepublicperceptionthattheactionsareproperandappropriate,ratherthannegligentandirresponsible[61].Butthesearechallengingtasksbecausethepublicthatstandstogamfromtheprojectisnotnecessarilythesamethattheprojectaffectsmost[66].Howprojectman・agerscanuselanguagetocomiimmcateeffectivelywithexternalstakeholdersaffectedbytheprojectsoastoprotectlegitmiacyisthequestionattheheartofthisstudy.
Asaproxyforresearchingthisquestion,tinsempiricalstudyexaminesnvdepthverbalaccountsproducedthroughouttheteractionbenveenaseniorprojectmanagementteamandrq)re-sentativesofthelocalcomniunitiesaffectedbytheconstructionworksforanewairportterminal.Thesettingisthe£4.2billion(2006prices)Terminal5(T5)projectatHeathrow,aprivateportownedbyBritishAirportsAuthority(BAA).TheanalysisdepartsfromElsbach's[22]workonhowfirmsuseaccounts(whichencompassexplanations,justifications,proclamationsofinnocence,useofenhancements,andentitlements)soastoprotectinstitutionallegitunacy.Elsbachidentifiestwolinguisticformstoframetheaccounts:
acknowledgementsanddenials,andtwotypesofcontenttoconstnicttheaccounts:
referencestoinstitutionalandtechnicalpractices.
001S-939152(500©2009IEEE
Somewhatsuiprismgly,thefindingsrevealthat“denials”[22]and"silence"[32]whenresidentsmakeclaimsarehardlyanoptionfortheprojectnianagementteam.Rather,theacknowledgementoftheissuesatthecoreoftheclaimsemergesasanalmostnecessaryconditiontotalkpeopleintobelievingthattheprojectteamiscommittedtomitigatethedetrimentalimpactsoftheproject.Managersappeartointentionallyacknowledgetheissueseveniftheyperceivethattheclaimshavelowlegitimacymthesensethattheymaybefactuallyincorrect,opportunistic,orexaggerated.Inlightofthisconstraint,thefindingssug・gestthatthetoneoftheacknowledgements,i.e.,theattitudeconveyedthroughthechoiceofwordsandphrasing,becomescriticaltofittheacknowledgmentstotheperceivedlegitnnacyoftheclaimsandtothecontentavailableforconstructingthemanagers'accounts.Groundedontheanalysisoftheempiricalfindingsfromthiscasestudy,thisstudyproposesaconceptualframeworkaboutthestrategicuseoflanguageasaresourcetomanagelocalcommunitiesandexternalstakeholdersalike.
Theremainderofthepaperisstructuredasfollows.First,theworkmconiinuxiicationforprotectinglegitunacyisdiscussedinSectionII.ThentheresearchmethodsandsettingaredescribedmSectionIII.SectionIVanalysestheverbalaccounts,andSectionVdiscussesdiefindmgs.Finally.SectionVIpresentstheimplicationstopracticeandtheory,andSectionVIIdiscussesthelmntationsandopportuniuesforfutureresearch.
II.CommunicationandLegitimacy:
InFirmsandProjects
Organizationsareeagertocommunicatetoprotectmstitii・tionallegitimacy,andmaintainapositivereputationinthepubliceyeandmtheeyesoftheactorsthatcaninfluencetheirfate[59].Thisisespeciallysoforlargefirms,whicharemorelikelytobethetargetofinstitutionalactors[18].Theseactors,suchasmediaandinterestgroins,createcoerciveandnormativepressuresforconformitytopublicexpectations,aswellasanarenainwhichfirmscanbuildlegiuinacy[22].Funisthatfoiltomeetexpectationsunderlinetheirmstimtionallegitimacy,andcompromiseprospectsofgrowthandexistenceduetolawsuits,regulatorchanges,andboycotts[25],[32].
Variousstudieshaveuncoveredstnicturesthatfirmscreatetocomimuiicateandprotectinstitutionallegitimacy、namely^rorkmimpressionmanagenient(e.g.,[22]).issuesmanagement(e.g.,[10],[18],and[34]),publicaffairs(eg.,[32]and[53]),andmorerecently,corporatecommunication[14].The“boundaryspanning'、role[45]ofthesestructuresishvofold.Ontlieonehand,theybuildbridgestohelpnianagersunderstandtheoutsideworld,andlearnhowthefirmcanadaptsoastomeetorexceedregulatorrequirementsandconformtoexpectations[45].Ontheotherhand、theyworkasabufferthatmanagersusetoinsulatethefirmfromexternalinterference,ortoengagemadvocacyandadvertisingforuifiuencmgpolicy,regulation,andsociopoliticalexpectations[45].
Onestreamofthisliteraturefocusesontheverbalaccountsthatthesestructuresproducetoprotectinstitutionallegitimacy.Elsbach's[22]studyoftheaccountsproducedbytheCaliforniaCattleIndustryrevealstwobroadlinguisticframingsandtwotyp亡sofcontents.Accountscanbeframedasacknowledgementsordemals.Adenial("itdidnothappen'')attemptstoseparatethefirmfromthecontroversialevent,whereastheacknowledgement("werecognizethenegativeevent,but**)recognizesit,buttriestoattenuatenegativeperceptions.Theacknowledgementscanbemoreeffectivetomducepositive代・actionsbecausetheyseemlessdefensiveandmoreconcernedwiththepublicneedsthanthedenials[41].Thecontentmayincludereferencestotechnicalormstimtionalpractices.Thetechnicalreferencesstressefficiencyandeffectivenessinorganizationalperformance,conveyingrationalityandvalidity[22].Theinstitutionalrefdencestononnauve.andsociallyendorsedpracticesandgoalsimprovethecredibilityandbelievabilityoftheaccounts.Theinstitutionalreferencescanbemoreeffec