英语语言学导论.docx

英语语言学导论.docx

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英语语言学导论

Chapter1Introduction:

LanguageandLinguistics

●Whatislanguage?

Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication

●Featuresofhumanlanguage

⏹Creativity

◆Languageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingnovelmessages.

◆Thegrammaticalrulesandthewordsofalanguagearefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.

⏹Duality

◆Languagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.

◆Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.

◆Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.

⏹Arbitrariness

◆Therelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.

◆Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.

⏹Displacement

◆Thereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.

◆Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.

⏹Culturaltransmission

◆Culturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.

◆Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.

⏹Interchangeability

◆Allmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.

⏹Reflexivity

◆Humanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.

◆Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.

●Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-functions

⏹Theideationalfunction

◆Toidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.

⏹Theinterpersonalfunction

◆Togetalonginacommunity.

⏹Thetextualfunction

◆Toformatext.

●Whatislinguistics?

⏹Linguisticsmaybedefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

⏹Branchesoflinguistics

◆Internalbranches:

intra-disciplinarydivisions

●Phonetics

●Phonology

●Morphology

●Syntax

●Semantics

◆Externalbranches:

inter-disciplinarydivisions

●Pragmatics

●Psycholinguistics

●Sociolinguistics

●Appliedlinguistics

●Computationallinguistics

●Neurolinguistics

⏹Modernlinguisticsbeganintheearly20thcentury.ItfounderistheSwissscholar,FerdinanddeSaussure.（索绪尔）

Chapter2Phonetics

●Whatisphonetics?

Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.（Itstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.）

●Descriptionofspeechsounds

⏹DescriptionofEnglishconsonants

◆Generalfeature:

obstruction

◆Criteriaofconsonantdescription

●Placesofarticulation

●Mannersofarticulation

●Voicingofarticulation

◆Placesofarticulation

●Thisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.

⏹Bilabial:

[p][b][m][w]

⏹Labiodental:

[f][v]

⏹Interdental:

[][]

⏹Alveolar:

[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]

⏹Palatal:

[][][t][d][j]

⏹Velar:

[k][g][]

⏹Glottal:

[h]

◆Mannersofarticulation

●Thisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.

⏹Stops:

[p][b][t][d][k][g]

⏹Fricatives:

[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]

⏹Affricates:

[t][d]

⏹Liquids:

[l][r]

⏹Glides:

[w][j]

⏹Nasals:

[m][n][]

◆Voicingofarticulation

●Thisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.

⏹Voicedsounds

⏹Voicelesssounds

Chapter3Phonology

●Whatisphonology?

Phonologyisthestudyofsoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguage.

●Discoveringphonemes

⏹Contrastivedistribution–phonemes

◆Ifsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.

◆Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.

●Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.

●Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.

◆TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.

◆SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.

⏹Complementarydistribution–allophones

◆Soundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

◆Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.

●Syllablestructure

⏹Asyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.

⏹Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.

⏹Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.

Chapter4Morphology

●Whatismorphology?

Morphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.

●Morphemesandallomorphs

⏹Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.

⏹Thedifferentmorphsofthesamemorphemearecalledallomorphs.

●Conclusion:

classificationofmorphemes

⏹Morphemes

◆Freemorphemes:

canbeusedindependentlyasaword

◆Boundmorphemes:

arethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedasaword,theymustbeattachedtotheothermorphemes.

●Formationofnewwords

⏹Derivation

◆Derivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.

◆Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.

◆Derivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.

◆Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.

◆SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.

⏹Compounding

◆Compoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.

◆ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.

◆Incompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.

◆Themeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.

⏹Conversion

◆Conversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.

◆Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.

⏹Clipping

◆Clippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.

◆ClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.

◆Someclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus（omnibus）,vet（veterinarian）,gym（gymnasium）,fridge（refrigerator）andfax（facsimile）arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.

⏹Blending

◆Blendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog（smoke+frog）,brunch（amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch）,motel（motor+hotel）.Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”（akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike）.

⏹Back-formation

◆Back-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-（far）totherootvision（viewing）.Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.

⏹Acronymsandabbreviations

◆Acronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.

◆Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.

◆Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.

⏹Eponyms

◆Eponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.

⏹Coinage

◆Coinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.

◆Thiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.

Chapter5Syntax

●Whatissyntax?

Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyofsentenceformation.

⏹Immediateconstituent（IC）analysis

◆Structuralgrammarischaracterizedbyatop-downprocessofanalysis.

◆Asentenceisseenasaconstituentstructure.Allthecomponentsofthesentencesareitsconstituents.Asentencecanbecutintosections.Eachsectionisitsimmediateconstituent.Theneachsectioncanbefurthercutintoconstituents.Thison-goingcuttingistermedimmediateconstituentanalysis.

◆Examples:

●Oldmenandwomen:

old|menandwomen,old||men|andwomen

●The|||little||girl|speaks||French.

◆Inthisway,sentencestructureisanalyzednotonlyhorizontallybutalsovertically.Inotherwords,ICanalysiscanaccountforthelinearityandthehierarchyofsentencestructure.

●Iwillsuggest|thatthis||initselfreflects|||aparticularideology||||aboutgender|||||thatdeservestobere-examined.

◆TwoadvantagesofICanalysis:

●Itcananalyzesomeambiguities.

●Itshowslinearityandhierarchyofonesentence.

●Transformational-generative（TG）grammar

⏹BackgroundandthegoalofT